Computational modeling of muscle biomechanics 175
In addition they were used in simulations, for example, to analyze the per-
formance of athletes (Neptune et al ., 2009), the function of single muscles
during running and cycling (Zajac et al ., 2002, 2003), the in uence of ten-
don properties on jumping height (Bobbert, 2001), or to predict forces in
crash-test studies (Hardin et al ., 2004). Using musculoskeletal simulations,
self-stabilizing mechanisms (which enable toleration of disturbances during
cyclic movements without additional central commands) were identi ed on
different levels of control and structure (Blickhan et al ., 2003, 2007; Seyfarth
et al ., 2003). Medical research is a fundamental application area of muscle
models ...