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values and mutual impact guide interactions. For example, mutualism imagines
human beings as inherently engaging in free association and prone toward reciproc-
ity, but not through or under a social contract governed by a state (Carson 2006).
Radical thought also carries forward in critical theory, which seeks human eman-
cipation from all oppressive social structures, including both capitalist hierarchies
and socialist authoritarianism (Clark 1998). It is espoused by philosophers such
as Max Horkheimer, eodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Jurgen Habermas
through the Frankfurt School’s Institute for Social Research in Germany. In sum,
these theorists seek solutions that transcend ...