
223Project Execution and Oversight
At the start of the Iron Age, our distant ancestors struggled to process
iron ore into useful implements. Most of the process techniques for copper,
bronze, and gold were not appropriate for iron, due to its superior hardness
and elevated melting point. The early smiths probably experimented for gen-
erations before they mastered the skillset needed to consistently make iron
tools and weapons.
In particular, iron needs a ux, such as limestone, when heating the ore,
to remove nonmetallic contaminants. Advanced furnace designs and bel-
lows were required to reach the appropriate temperatures. The lump that
emerged ...