
History Repeats Itself—Unfortunately • 57
specifying value from the standpoint of the end customer, removing
wasteful actions, and making those remaining actions that do add value
occur in a continuous ow as pulled by the customer. Applying Lean
requires moving from a vertical structure to a horizontal process-focused
structure and is best done by experimenting with an initial process; a
model line (i.e., a stream of value an inch wide and a mile deep). We will
cover this in more detail in later chapters; however, let’s go back to the les-
sons of Ford and Toyota to better understand the idea of process-focused
organizations. Lean is not j