Introduction: Turning Points, Typology, and Puzzles
At the beginning of the 21st century, liberal democracies are facing both old and new challenges and threats causing fragmentation, instability, and fear. Economic crises such as global financial crises and the Covid-19 pandemic have threatened the welfare and social cohesion of democracies. In some cases, these crises have caused increasing polarisation in societies and disenchantment with politics, undermining the legitimacy and functioning of democracies. As a result, and facilitated by other events such as migration, populism, and nationalism are gaining ground in democracies, threating their liberal ...
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