book

Dielectric Materials for Electrical Engineering

Name: Dielectric Materials for Electrical Engineering
Author: Juan Martinez-Vega
ISBN: 9781848211650

by Juan Martinez-Vega

March 2010

Intermediate to advanced

640 pages

15h 28m

English

Wiley

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Cover
Title Page
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Part 1: General Physics Phenomena
Chapter 1: Physics of Dielectrics
1.1. Definitions1.2. Different types of polarization1.2.1. Non-polar solids1.2.2. Polar solids1.2.3. Electronic polarization1.2.4. Ionic polarization1.2.5. Orientation polarization1.2.6. Interfacial or space-charge polarization1.2.7. Comments1.3. Macroscopic aspects of the polarization1.3.1. Polarization of solids with metallic bonding1.3.2. Polarization of iono-covalent solids1.3.3. Notion of polarization charges1.3.4. Average field in a neutral medium1.3.5. Medium containing excess charges1.3.6. Local field1.3.7. Frequency response of a dielectric1.4. Bibliography
Chapter 2: Physics of Charged Dielectrics: Mobility and Charge Trapping
2.1. Introduction2.2. Localization of a charge in an “ideally perfect” and pure polarizable medium2.2.1. Consideration of the polarization2.2.2. Coupling of a charge with a polarizable medium: electrostatic approach2.2.3. Coupling of a charge with a polarizable medium: quantum approach2.2.3.1. Coupling with the electronic polarization field2.2.3.2. Coupling with the ionic polarization field2.2.4. Conduction mechanisms2.2.4.1. Low-temperature conduction2.2.4.2. Conduction at high temperature2.2.4.3. Comments2.3. Localization and trapping of carriers in a real material2.3.1. Localization and trapping of the small polaron2.3.2. Localization and intrinsic trapping of the carriers2.3.3. Trapping on structure defects and impurities2.3.4. Localization related to disorder2.3.5. Mechanical energy related to the trapping of one charge2.4. Detrapping2.4.1. Thermal detrapping2.4.2. Detrapping under an electric field by the Poole-Frankel effect2.5. Bibliography
Chapter 3: Conduction Mechanisms and Numerical Modeling of Transport in Organic Insulators: Trends and Perspectives
3.1. Introduction3.2. Molecular modeling applied to polymers3.2.1. Energy diagram: from the n-alkanes to polyethylene3.2.2. Results of modeling3.2.2.1. N-alkanes models of polyethylene3.2.2.2. Volume properties: amorphous and crystalline phases3.2.2.3. Surface and nano-void properties3.2.2.4. Trapping sites3.2.2.4.1. Physical defects3.2.2.4.2. Chemical defects3.2.2.5. Self-trapping and polaron concept3.3. Macroscopic models3.3.1. Elementary processes3.3.1.1. Generation of charges3.3.1.1.1. Electrode injection3.3.1.1.2. Internal generation3.3.1.1.3. Carrier extraction3.3.1.2. Charge transport3.3.1.2.1. Hopping conduction3.3.1.2.2. Poole–Frenkel Effect3.3.1.2.3. SCLC models3.3.1.2.4. Ionic conduction3.3.1.2.5. Diffusion3.3.1.2.6. Mobility3.3.2. Some models characterizing the experimental behavior3.3.2.1. Transient current models3.3.2.2. Models associated with the space charge measurements3.3.2.3. High field models3.4. Trends and perspectives3.4.1. Unification of atomistic and macroscopic approaches3.4.2. Interface behavior3.4.3. Physical models for transport in volume3.4.3.1. Identification of the nature of carriers3.4.3.2. Trap identification3.4.4. Degradation induced by a charge and/or a field3.4.5. Contribution of the physics of non-insulating organic materials3.5. Conclusions3.6. Bibliography
Chapter 4: Dielectric Relaxation in Polymeric Materials
4.1. Introduction4.2. Dynamics of polarization mechanisms4.2.1. Electronic and ionic polarization4.2.2. Dipolar polarization4.2.3. Maxwell- Wagner–Sillars polarization4.2.4. Interfacial polarization4.3. Orientation polarization in the time domain4.3.1. Single relaxation time model4.3.2. Discrete distribution of relaxation times4.3.3. Continuous distribution of relaxation times4.3.4. Stretched exponential: Kohlrausch–Williams–Watts equation4.4. Orientation polarization in the frequency domain4.4.1. Single relaxation time model: the Debye equation4.4.2. Discrete distribution of relaxation times4.4.3. Continuous distribution of relaxation times4.4.4. Parametric analytical expressions4.4.4.1. Cole–Cole equation4.4.4.2. Havriliak and Negami equation4.4.4 3. Cole–Cole representation4.4.5. Kramers–Kronig relations4.5. Temperature dependence4.5.1. Shift factor4.5.1.1. Time domain4.5.1.2. Frequency domain4.5.2. Crystalline or vitreous phases: Arrhenius equation4.5.2.1. Thermal activation mechanism4.5.2.2. Interpretation of the activation parameters4.5.3. Vitreous phases in the transition zone: the Hoffman–Williams–Passaglia equation4.5.4. Liquid phases: Vogel–Fulcher–Tammann equation (VFT)4.5.4.1. Free volume concept4.5.4.2. Williams–Landel–Ferry empirical expression (WLF)4.6. Relaxation modes of amorphous polymers4.6.1. Primary relaxation mode4.6.1.1. Complex relaxation in an homogenous liquid medium4.6.1.2. Discrete spectrum of simple relaxations in a heterogenous vitreous medium4.6.2. Secondary relaxation modes4.6.2.1. Specific mobility of the chemical structure4.6.2.2. Mobility of the main chain4.7. Relaxation modes of semi-crystalline polymers4.7.1. Complex relaxation in an homogenous medium4.7.2. Discrete spectrum of elementary relaxations in a heterogenous medium4.7.3. Universality of the behavior laws in semi-crystalline polymers4.8. Conclusion4.9. Bibliography
Chapter 5: Electrification
5.1. Introduction5.2. Electrification of solid bodies by separation/contact5.2.1. The process5.2.2. Charge transfer mechanism by the separation contact of two different conductors5.2.3. Polymer-metal contact5.2.4. Contact between two polymers5.2.5. Triboelectric series5.3. Electrification of solid particles5.3.1. Theoretical work by Masuda et al.5.3.2. Experimental work by Touchard et al. [TOU 91]5.3.2.1. Experimental device5.3.2.2. Results5.3.2.2.1. Influence of the impact angle5.3.2.2.2. Influence of the impact speed on the normal component5.3.2.2.3. Influence of the size of the particles5.3.2.2.4. Comparison of results obtained on the three targets5.3.2.2.5. Evolution of the total charge of a particle according to the number of impacts5.4. Conclusion5.5. Bibliography
Part 2: Phenomena Associated with Environmental Stress – Ageing

Chapter 6: Space Charges: Definition, History, Measurement
6.1. Introduction6.2. History6.3. Space charge measurement methods in solid insulators6.3.1. Destructive methods6.3.1.1. The thermally stimulated current method6.3.1.2. The mirror method6.3.2. Non-destructive methods6.3.2.1. Thermal methods6.3.2.2. Pressure methods6.4. Trends and perspectives6.5. Bibliography
Chapter 7: Dielectric Materials under Electron Irradiation in a Scanning Electron Microscope
7.1. Introduction7.2. Fundamental aspects of electron irradiation of solids7.2.1. Volume of interaction and penetration depth7.2.2. The different emissions7.2.2.1. Electron emission7.2.2.1.1. Backscattered electrons7.2.2.1.2. Secondary electron emissionMechanismTotal emission yield7.2.2.2. Emission of X-ray photons7.3. Physics of insulators7.3.1. General points7.3.2. Insulators under electron irradiation7.3.2.1. Microscopic phenomena7.3.2.1.1. Secondary electron emission of insulators7.3.2.1.2. Induced defects and desorption of species7.3.2.1.3. Trapping and charge transportThe different processesMobility of charge carriers in disordered insulators7.3.2.2. Macroscopic phenomena: charging effects7.3.2.2.1. General law of conservation of current and induced charge7.3.2.2.2. Self-regulation and conventional approach: sign of the induced charge7.3.2.2.3. Deflection of the primary beamPartial deflectionTotal deflection: mirror effect7.3.2.2.4. Chemical modifications and other irradiation effects7.3.2.3. Parameters governing the charge phenomena7.4. Applications: measurement of the trapped charge or the surface potential7.4.1. Introduction7.4.2. Static methods7.4.2.1. Mirror method7.4.2.2. Spectroscopic methods7.4.2.2.1. X-ray spectroscopy7.4.2.2.2. Electron spectroscopy7.4.3. Dynamical methods7.4.3.1. Method based on the deflection of the primary beam7.4.3.2. Method based on electrostatic influence7.4.3.2.1. Principle7.4.3.2.2. Experimental device7.5. Conclusion7.6. Bibliography
Chapter 8: Precursory Phenomena and Dielectric Breakdown of Solids
8.1. Introduction8.2. Electrical breakdown8.3. Precursory phenomena8.3.1. Definition8.3.2. Potential precursors8.3.2.1. The material8.3.2.2. Impurities8.3.3. Induced precursors8.3.3.1. Outgassing of the insulating material8.3.3.2. Mechanical deformations8.3.3.3. The frequency8.3.3.4. Irradiations8.3.4. Observed precursors8.3.4.1. Electroluminescence8.3.4.2. Pre-breakdown currents8.3.4.3. Arborescence8.3.4.4. Presence of electrical discharges8.3.4.5. The case of transformers8.4. Conclusion8.5. Bibliography
Chapter 9: Models for Ageing of Electrical Insulation: Trends and Perspectives
9.1. Introduction9.2. Kinetic approach according to Zhurkov9.2.1. Presentation9.2.2. Interpretation of the process and introduction to the notion of a dilaton9.2.2.1. Definition according to Zhurkov (1983)9.2.2.2. Definition according to Kusov (1979)9.2.2.3. Definition according to Petrov (1983)9.2.2.4. Universal breakdown kinetics9.3. Thermodynamic approach according to Crine9.4. Microscopic approach according to Dissado–Mazzanti–Montanari9.4.1. Thermal ageing9.4.2. Ageing under electrical field: space charges effect9.5. Conclusions and perspectives9.6. Bibliography
Part 3: Characterization Methods and Measurement
Chapter 10: Response of an Insulating Material to an Electric Charge: Measurement and Modeling
10.1. Introduction10.2. Standard experiments10.3. Basic electrostatic equations10.3.1. General equations10.3.2. Current measurement at a fixed potential: case (a)10.3.3. Voltage measurement at a fixed charge: case (b)10.4. Dipolar polarization10.4.1. Examples10.5. Intrinsic conduction10.5.1. Example: charged insulator irradiated by a high-energy electron beam10.6. Space charge, injection and charge transport10.6.1. Electrostatic models10.6.1.1. Example: transient current measurements on polyethylene films10.6.2. Models combining electrostatics and thermodynamics: the influence of trapping and dispersive transport10.6.3. Purely thermodynamic models: current controlled by detrapping10.6.3.1. Example 1: short-circuit current during the discharge of a polyethylene film10.6.3.2. Example 2: voltage decay on a polystyrene film charged by an electron beam10.6.4. Interface-limited charge injection10.6.4.1. Example 1: stationary current in polypropylene films10.6.4.2. Example 2: voltage decay on corona-charged films10.7. Which model for which material?10.8. Bibliography
Chapter 11: Pulsed Electroacoustic Method: Evolution and Development Perspectives for Space Charge Measurement
11.1. Introduction11.2. Principle of the method11.2.1. General context11.2.2. PEA device11.2.3. Measurement description11.2.4. Signal processing11.2.5. Example of measurement11.3. Performance of the method11.3.1. Resolution in the thickness11.3.2. Lateral resolution11.3.3. Acquisition frequency11.3.4. Signal/noise ratio11.4. Diverse measurement systems11.4.1. Measurements under high voltage11.4.2. High and low temperature measurements11.4.3. Measurements under lighting11.4.4. 3D detection system11.4.5. PEA system with high repetition speed11.4.6. Portable system11.4.7. Measurements under irradiation11.4.8. Contactless system11.5. Development perspectives and conclusions11.6. Bibliography
Chapter 12: FLIMM and FLAMM Methods: Localization of 3-D Space Charges at the Micrometer Scale
12.1. Introduction12.2. The FLIMM method12.2.1. Principle12.2.2. Characteristic FLIMM equation12.3. The FLAMM method12.4. Modeling of the thermal gradient12.5. Mathematical deconvolution12.5.1. Virtual Space Charge Model12.5.2. The scale transformation method12.5.3. The regularization method12.6. Results12.6.1. 1-D study of PEN (Polyethylene Naphtalate) subjected to high fields12.6.2. 2-D charge distribution12.6.3. 3-D charge distributions12.6.3.1. Sample preparation12.6.3.2. 3-D cartographies12.7. Conclusion12.8. Bibliography
Chapter 13: Space Charge Measurement by the Laser-Induced Pressure Pulse Technique
13.1. Introduction13.2. History13.3. Establishment of fundamental equations for the determination of space charge distribution13.3.1. Specific case: uncharged or charged and short-circuited sample (V=0)13.3.2. General case: charged sample submitted to an electrical potential difference13.3.3. Application of a pressure wave13.3.4. Relationships between measured signals and charge distribution13.4. Experimental setup13.4.1. Synoptic schema of the measurement setup13.4.2. Generation of pressure13.4.3. Signal recording13.4.4. Calibration of the experimental setup13.4.5. Signal processing13.5. Performances and limitations13.5.1. Performances13.5.2. Limitations13.6. Examples of use of the method13.7. Use of the LIPP method for surface charge measurement13.8. Perspectives13.9. Bibliography
Chapter 14: The Thermal Step Method for Space Charge Measurements
14.1. Introduction14.2. Principle of the thermal step method (TSM)14.2.1. The TSM in short circuit conditions14.2.2. Evosec of the TSM for measurements under a continuous applied electric field14.2.3. Calibration: use of measurements under low applied field for the determination of material parameters14.3. Numerical resolution methods14.4. Experimental set-up14.4.1. Plate-type samples14.4.2. Power cables14.4.2.1. Measurements in short circuit conditions14.4.2.2. Measurements under applied electric field14.5. Applications14.5.1. Materials14.5.1.1. Influence of molar weight and cooling rate on the presence of space charges in polyethylene [TOU 98]14.5.1.2. Revealing the heterogenity of composite materials (charged epoxy resin)14.5.1.3. Evolution of space charges in materials for cables subjected to an alternative electrical constraint (50 Hz)14.5.2. Components14.5.2.1. Monitoring of the internal electric field of a cable subjected to electrical and thermal stress14.5.2.2. Monitoring of the ageing of micaceous composite insulation from a power alternator winding14.5.2.3. Characterization of Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (MOS) structures for micro and nanoelectronics14.6. Conclusion14.7. Bibliography
Chapter 15: Physico-Chemical Characterization Techniques of Dielectrics
15.1. Introduction15.2. Domains of application15.2.1. Transformers and power capacitors15.2.1.1. Principle of chromatographic analysis and results15.2.1.2. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)15.2.1.3. Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)15.2.2. Energy transport cables and dry capacitors15.2.2.1. Microscopy15.3. The materials themselves15.3.1. Infrared spectrophotometry15.3.2. Calorimetric analysis15.3.3. Thermostimulated currents15.4. Conclusion15.5. Bibliography
Chapter 16: Insulating Oils for Transformers
16.1. Introduction16.2. Generalities16.3. Mineral oils16.3.1. Composition16.3.2. Implementation16.3.3. Characteristics16.4. Synthetic esters or pentaerythritol ester16.4.1. Composition and implementation16.4.2. Characteristics16.4.3. Application16.5. Silicone oils or PDMS16.5.1. Composition and implementation16.5.2. Characteristics16.5.2.1. Use16.6. Halogenated hydrocarbons or PCB16.6.1. Composition and implementation16.6.2. Characteristics16.6.3. Retro-filling16.7. Natural esters or vegetable oils16.7.1. Composition and implementation16.7.2. Characteristics16.7.3. Use16.8. Security of employment of insulating oils16.8.1. Characteristics related to fire16.8.1.1. Flash point, fire point and auto-inflammation16.8.1.2. Combustion characteristics16.8.2. Toxicology and ecotoxicology16.8.2.1. The toxicological properties16.8.2.2. The ecotoxicological properties16.9. Conclusion and perspectives16.10. Bibliography
Chapter 17: Electrorheological Fluids
17.1. Introduction17.1.1. Electrokinetic effects17.1.2. Electroviscous effects17.1.3. Electrorheological effects17.2. Electrorheology17.2.1. Electrorheological effect17.2.2. Characterization of electrorheological fluids17.2.2.1. Rheological characteristics17.2.2.2. Electrical characteristics17.2.2.3. Energy assessment17.2.3. Composition of electrorheological fluids17.2.4. Applications of electrorheological fluids17.3. Mechanisms and modeling of the electrorheological effect17.3.1. Forces exerted on and between the particles17.3.2. Mechanisms of the electrorheological effect17.3.2.1. Polarization and bringing the particles closer17.3.2.2. Formation of chains and conduction current17.3.2.3. Flow resistance17.4. The conduction model17.4.1. The bases of the conduction model17.4.2. Attraction force between half-spheres17.5. Giant electrorheological effect17.6. Conclusion17.7. Bibliography
Chapter 18: Electrolytic Capacitors
18.1. Introduction18.2. Generalities18.2.1. Characteristic parameters18.2.1.1. Presentation18.2.1.2. Energy and capacity18.2.1.3. Dielectric constant and rigidity18.2.1.4. Thickness of the dielectric18.2.1.5. Surface of electrodes18.2.2. Conclusions on the different families of capacitors18.3. Electrolytic capacitors18.4. Aluminum liquid electrolytic capacitors18.4.1. Principles and composition [PER 03], [ALV 95]18.4.2. Assembly and connections [PER 03]18.5. (Solid electrolyte) tantalum electrolytic capacitors18.5.1. Principle, composition and glimpse of the manufacture [BES 90], [KEM 01], [LAG 96], [PRY 01]18.5.2. Assembly and connections18.6. Models and characteristics18.6.1. Representative electrical diagram18.6.2. Loss factors, loss angles18.6.3. Variation as a function of the voltage18.6.4. Variation as a function of the ambient temperature18.6.4.1. Electrolyte liquid aluminum electrolytic capacitors18.6.4.2. Solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors18.7. Failures of electrolytic capacitors18.7.1. Modes and failure rates of components18.7.2. Influence of temperature18.7.3. Failures of liquid electrolyte aluminum electrolytic capacitors18.7.3.1. Ageing of liquid electrolyte aluminum capacitors18.7.3.2. Other failures of liquid electrolyte aluminum capacitors18.7.4. Failures of solid electrolyte tantalum capacitors18.8. Conclusion and perspectives18.9. Bibliography
Chapter 19: Ion Exchange Membranes for Low Temperature Fuel Cells
19.1. Introduction19.2. Homogenous cation-exchange membranes19.3. Heterogenous ion exchange membranes19.4. Polymer/acid membranes19.4.1. Membranes prepared from polyme blends19.5. Characterization of membranes19.5.1. Nernst-Planck flux equation19.5.2. Osmotic phenomena and electric potential19.5.3. Ionic diffusion in ion exchange membranes19.5.4. Electromotive force of concentration cells and transport number19.5.5. Conductivity19.5.6. Electro-osmosis19.5.7. Thermodynamics of irreversible processes and transport numbers19.6. Experimental characterization of ion exchange membranes19.6.1. Water sorption19.6.2. Determination of the ion exchange capacity19.6.3. Measurements of transport number and mobility of protons in membranes19.6.3.1. Measurement of the mobility of protons19.6.4. Measurement of conductivity19.6.5. Electro-osmotic measurements19.6.6. Measurements of the permeability of reformers in membranes: methanol permeability in vapour phase19.7. Determination of membrane morphology using the SEM technique19.8. Thermal stability19.9. Acknowledgements19.10. Bibliography
Chapter 20: Semiconducting Organic Materials for Electroluminescent Devices and Photovoltaic Conversion
20.1. Brief history20.2. Origin of conduction in organic semiconductors20.3. Electrical and optical characteristics of organic semiconductors20.4. Application to electroluminescent devices20.4.1. General structure of an organic electroluminescent diode (OLED)20.4.2. Electroluminescence efficiency20.4.3. Advancement of the technology20.5. Application to photovoltaic conversion20.5.1. General structure of an organic photovoltaic cell20.5.2. Functioning of an organic photovoltaic cell20.5.3. Advancement of the technology20.6. The processing of organic semiconductors20.6.1. Deposition of polymer solutions20.6.1.1. Deposition by spreading20.6.1.2. “Inkjet” deposition20.6.2. Vapor phase deposition of low molar mass materials20.6.2.1. Deposition by thermal evaporation under secondary vacuum20.6.2.2. Low-pressure vapor phase deposition20.6.3. Laser thermal transfer of organic materials20.7. Conclusion20.8. Bibliography
Chapter 21: Dielectric Coatings for the Thermal Control of Geostationary Satellites: Trends and Problems
21.1. Introduction21.2. Space environment21.2.1. Orbits21.2.2. Free space21.2.3. Microgravity21.2.4. Thermal environment21.2.5. Atomic oxygen21.2.6. Electromagnetic radiation21.2.7. Charged particles [HID 05]21.2.8. Meteoroids and cosmic debris21.3. The thermal control of space vehicles21.3.1. The definition of thermal control21.3.2. Usual technologies for thermal control21.3.3. Coatings for thermal control21.3.4. Multilayer insulations (MLI)21.3.5. Radiator coatings21.4. Electrostatic phenomena in materials21.4.1. Electrical conductivity21.4.1.1. The secondary electronic emission21.4.1.2. Intrinsic conductivity21.4.1.3. Radiation-induced conductivity21.4.2. Electrostatic discharges in the geostationary environment21.4.2.1. Dielectric discharge21.4.2.2. Metal discharge21.4.2.2.1. Field emission21.4.2.2.2. The peak effect21.5. Conclusion21.6. Bibliography
Chapter 22: Recycling of Plastic Materials
22.1. Introduction22.2. Plastic materials22.2.1. Introduction to plastic materials22.2.2. Consumption of plastic materials22.2.3. Plastics in electrical engineering22.3. Plastic residues22.3.1. Generation and recovery of plastic residues22.3.2. Processings at the end of life22.3.2.1. Mechanical recycling of thermoplastics22.3.2.2. Mechanical recycling of thermohardenables22.3.2.3. Chemical recycling, or feedstock22.3.2.3.1. Chemolysis or chemical depolymerization22.3.2.3.2. Thermolysis22.3.2.4. Incineration with energy recovery22.3.3. Potential and limitations of recycling22.4. Bibliography
Chapter 23: Piezoelectric Polymers and their Applications
23.1. Introduction23.2. Piezoelectric polymeric materials23.2.1. Poly(vinylidene fluoride)(PVDF)23.2.2. The copolymers P(VDF-TrFE)23.2.3. The odd-numbered polyamides23.2.4. Copolymers constituted of vinylidene cyanide monomer23.3. Electro-active properties of piezoelectric polymers23.3.1. Ferroelectricity23.3.2. Semi-crystalline polymers: Fluorinated polymers and odd polyamides23.3.3. Amorphous Poly(vinylidene cyanide) copolymers23.3.4. Influence of chemical composition and physical structure on the electro-active properties of polymers23.3.5. Protocols of polarization23.3.6. Piezoelectricity23.3.7. Reduction of the number of independent coefficients – Matrix notation23.3.8. Piezoelectric constitutive equations23.3.9. Comparison of piezoelectric properties23.4. Piezoelectricity applications23.4.1. Transmitting transducers23.4.2. Piezoelectric sensors23.5. Transducers23.5.1. Principle23.5.2. Electroacoustic transducers23.5.3. Characteristics of ultrasonic transducers23.5.4. Hydrophones23.5.5. Probes for Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)23.5.6. Biomedical transducer applications23.6. Conclusion23.7. Bibliography
Chapter 24: Polymeric Insulators in the Electrical Engineering Industry: Examples of Applications, Constraints and Perspectives
24.1. Introduction24.2. Equipment24.2.1. Arc commutation24.2.2. Composite insulators24.3. Power transformer insulation24.4. Perspectives24.5. Conclusion24.6. Bibliography
List of Authors
Index

Overview

Part 1 is particularly concerned with physical properties, electrical ageing and modeling with topics such as the physics of charged dielectric materials, conduction mechanisms, dielectric relaxation, space charge, electric ageing and life end models and dielectric experimental characterization. Part 2 concerns some applications specific to dielectric materials: insulating oils for transformers, electrorheological fluids, electrolytic capacitors, ionic membranes, photovoltaic conversion, dielectric thermal control coatings for geostationary satellites, plastics recycling and piezoelectric polymers.

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