book

Basic Electronics

by Debashis De, Kamakhya Prasad Ghatak

March 2010

Beginner

632 pages

18h 50m

English

Pearson India

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Cover
Title Page
Contents
Dedication
Preface
Reviewers
The Author and the Contributor
1. Semiconductor Fundamentals
1-1 Introduction1-2 Crystalline MaterialsSemiconducting Materials1-2-1 Crystals and Crystal Structures1-2-2 Mechanical Properties1-2-3 Energy Band TheorySimplified Derivation of the Fermi–Dirac Statistics1-3 Basis of Classification: Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators1-3-1 Insulators (Eg >> 4 eV)1-3-2 Semiconductors (0 eV ≤ Eg ≤ 4 eV)1-3-3 Metals (Inter-Penetrating Band Structure)1-4 Intrinsic Semiconductors1-5 Extrinsic Semiconductors1-5-1 Doping1-5-2 Dopants1-5-3 Carrier Statistics in n- and p-type SemiconductorsProperties of the Fermi–Dirac Integral
1-6 Electrical Conduction Phenomenon
1-6-1 Mobility1-6-2 Conductivity1-6-3 Diffusion of Carriers1-6-4 Einstein Relation1-6-5 Recombination and Generation Processes1-7 The Continuity Equation1-8 Hall Effect
2. Diode Fundamentals
2-1 Introduction2-2 Formation of the p–n Junction2-3 Energy Band Diagrams2-3-1 The p–n Junction at Thermal Equilibrium2-4 Concepts of Junction Potential2-4-1 Space-Charge Region2-4-2 Built-in and Contact Potentials2-4-3 Effect of Doping on Barrier FieldInvariance of Fermi Level at Thermal Equilibrium2-4-4 Formulation of Built-in Potential2-5 Modes of the p–n Junction2-5-1 The p–n Junction with External Applied Voltage2-5-2 Rectifying Voltage–Current Characteristics of a p–n Junction2-5-3 The Junction Capacitance2-5-4 The Varactor Diode2-6 Derivation of the I–V Characteristics of a p–n Junction Diode2-7 Linear Piecewise Models2-8 Breakdown Diode2-8-1 Zener Breakdown2-8-2 Avalanche Breakdown2-9 Special Types of p–n Junction Semiconductor Diodes2-9-1 Tunnel Diode2-9-2 Light-Emitting Diode2-9-3 Photo Detector Diode2-9-4 Photovoltaic Diode2-10 Applications of Diode2-10-1 Radio Demodulation2-10-2 Power Conversion2-10-3 Over-Voltage Protection2-10-4 Logic Gates2-10-5 Ionizing Radiation Detectors2-10-6 Temperature Measuring2-10-7 Charge-Coupled Devices

3. Diode Circuits
3-1 Introduction3-2 Analysis of Diode Circuits3-3 Load Line and Q-Point3-4 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator3-4-1 Line Regulation3-4-2 Load Regulation: Regulation with Varying Load Resistance3-5 Rectifiers3-5-1 Half-Wave Rectifier3-5-2 Full-Wave Rectifier3-5-3 Use of Filters in Rectification3-5-4 Regulation3-5-5 Performance Analysis of Various Rectifier Circuits3-6 Clipper and Clamper Circuits3-6-1 Clipper3-6-2 Clamper3-7 Comparators3-8 Additional Diode Circuits3-8-1 Voltage Multiplier3-8-2 Peak Detector3-8-3 Digital Circuits3-8-4 Switching Regulators
4. BJT Fundamentals
4-1 Introduction4-2 Formation of p–n–p and n–p–n Junctions4-3 Transistor Mechanism4-4 Energy Band Diagrams4-5 Transistor Current Components4-5-1 Current Components in p–n–p Transistor4-5-2 Current Components in n–p–n Transistor4-6 CB, CE and CC Configurations4-6-1 Common-Base (CB) Mode4-6-2 Common-Emitter (CE) Mode4-6-3 Common-Collector (CC) Mode4-7 Expression for Current Gain4-7-1 Relationship between α and βEbers–Moll Model of Transistor4-8 Transistor Characteristics4-8-1 Input Characteristics4-8-2 Output Characteristics4-9 Operating Point and the Concept of Load Line4-10 Early Effect
5. BJT Circuits
5-1 Introduction5-2 Biasing and Bias Stability5-2-1 Circuit Configurations5-2-2 Stabilization Against Variations in ICO, VBE and β5-3 Calculation of Stability Factors5-3-1 Stability Factor S5-3-2 Stability Factor S'5-3-3 Stability Factor S''5-3-4 General Remarks on Collector Current Stability5-4 CE, CB Modes and Their Properties5-4-1 Common-Emitter (CE) Mode5-4-2 Common-Base Mode5-5 Small-Signal Low-Frequency Operation of Transistors5-5-1 Hybrid Parameters and Two-Port Network5-6 Equivalent Circuits Through Hybrid Parameters as a Two-Port Network5-7 Transistor as Amplifier5-7-1 The Parameter α'5-8 Expressions of Current Gain, Input Resistance, Voltage Gain and Output Resistance5-8-1 Current Gain (AI)5-8-2 Input Resistance (RI)5-8-3 Voltage Gain (Av)5-8-4 Output Resistance (RO)5-9 Frequency Response for CE Amplifier with and without Source Impedance5-9-1 Conclusions5-10 Emitter Follower5-11 Darlington Pair5-12 Transistor at High Frequencies5-13 Real-Life Applications of the Transistor
6. Field-Effect Transistor
6-1 Introduction6-2 The Field-Effect Transistor6-2-1 Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)6-2-2 Insulated Gate Field-Effect Transistor (IGFET)6-2-3 Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MESFET)6-3 Construction of the JFET6-4 Biasing of the JFET6-4-1 Effect of the Gate Voltage6-5 Current–Voltage Characteristics6-6 Transfer Characteristics of the JFET6-7 Construction and Characteristics of the MOSFET6-7-1 Depletion-Type MOSFET6-7-2 Enhancement-Type MOSFET6-8 Complementary MOS6-8-1 Construction of the CMOS6-8-2 CMOS InverterExamination of Mosfets under Two Extremes6-9 Real-Life Applications of the FET
7. FET Circuits
7-1 Introduction7-2 FET Biasing7-2-1 Fixed-Bias Arrangement7-2-2 Self-Bias Arrangement7-2-3 Voltage Divider Biasing Arrangement7-3 FET as an Amplifier7-3-1 DC Bias Point7-3-2 Voltage Gain of the FET7-4 Electrical Parameters of the FET7-5 AC Equivalent Circuit for Small-Signal Analysis7-5-1 Small-Signal Model for the MOSFETT Equivalent-Circuit Model7-6 High-Frequency MOSFET Model7-6-1 Effective Capacitance of the Gate7-6-2 The Junction Capacitance7-6-3 The High-Frequency Models of the MOSFET7-7 Additional FET Circuits7-7-1 MOS Differential Amplifiers7-7-2 Current Source Circuits7-8 Comparison Between the FET and the BJT
8. Special Semiconductor Devices
8-1 Introduction8-2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)8-2-1 Constructional Features8-2-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics8-2-3 I–V Characteristics of the SCR8-2-4 Simple Applications8-3 Triode AC Switch (TRIAC)8-3-1 Constructional FeaturesPhysical Operation and Characteristics of the TRIAC8-4 Diode AC Switch (DIAC)8-4-1 Constructional Features8-4-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics8-4-3 Applications8-5 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)8-5-1 Constructional Features8-5-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics8-5-3 Applications8-6 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)8-6-1 Constructional Features8-6-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics8-7 Real-Life Applications
9. Feedback Amplifier
9-1 Introduction9-2 Conceptual Development Through Block Diagrams9-2-1 Input Signal9-2-2 Output Signal9-2-3 Sampling Network9-2-4 Comparison or Summing Network9-2-5 Basic Amplifier9-3 Properties of Negative Feedback9-4 Calculations of Open-Loop Gain, Closed-Loop Gain and Feedback Factors9-4-1 Loop Gain or Return Ratio9-5 Topologies of the Feedback Amplifier9-5-1 Voltage-Series or Series-Shunt Feedback9-5-2 Current-Series or Series-Series Feedback9-5-3 Current-Shunt or Shunt-Series Feedback9-5-4 Voltage-Shunt or Shunt-Shunt Feedback9-6 Effect of Feedback on Gain, Input and Output Impedances9-6-1 Effect of Feedback on Input Impedance9-6-2 Effect of Feedback on Output Impedance9-7 Practical Implementations of the Feedback Topologies9-7-1 Voltage-Series Feedback Using Transistor9-7-2 Current-Series Feedback Using Transistor9-7-3 Voltage-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor9-7-4 Current-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor9-8 Sensitivity9-9 Bandwidth Stability9-10 Effect of Positive Feedback9-10-1 Instability and Oscillation9-10-2 Nyquist Criterion9-10-3 Condition of Oscillation9-10-4 Barkhausen Criterion
10. Fundamentals of Integrated Circuit Fabrication
10-1 Introduction10-2 Fundamentals of Integrated Circuits10-3 Types of Integrated Circuits10-3-1 Monolithic IC10-3-2 Hybrid IC10-4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits10-5 Scale of Integration10-5-1 Types of IC Chips10-6 Crystal Growth and Wafer Preparation10-7 Epitaxial Growth10-8 Oxidation for Isolation10-9 Photolithography for Pattern Transfer10-9-1 Mask Alignment and UV Exposure10-10 Etching for Design10-10-1 Wet Chemical Etching10-10-2 Dry Chemical Etching10-10-3 Chemical Plasma Etching10-10-4 Ion Beam Etching10-10-5 Reactive Ion Etching10-11 Diffusion for Doping10-12 Ion Implantation for Doping10-13 Metallization for Interconnection10-14 Testing for Reliability10-15 Packaging Protection10-16 IC Symbols10-17 Fabrication Steps for Different Circuits10-17-1 Fabrication of Resistors in Integrated Circuits10-17-2 Steps of Fabrication of Capacitors10-17-3 Steps of Fabrication of the Transistor Circuit10-17-4 The Schottky Diode10-17-5 Schematic Diagram of a CMOS Circuit10-18 Real-Life Applications
11. Operational Amplifier
11-1 Introduction11-2 Properties of the Ideal Operational Amplifier11-3 Specifications of IC 741C11-3-1 Description of Op-Amp 741 IC Pins11-4 Operational Amplifier and its Terminal Properties11-4-1 Input Offset Voltage and Output Offset Voltage11-4-2 Input-Bias Current11-4-3 Input Offset Current and Output Offset Current11-4-4 Input Offset Null Voltage11-4-5 Differential Input Resistance11-4-6 Input Capacitance11-4-7 Offset Voltage Adjustment Range11-4-8 Input Voltage Range11-4-9 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)11-4-10 Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR)11-4-11 Large Signal Voltage Gain11-4-12 Output Voltage Swing11-4-13 Output Resistance11-4-14 Supply Voltage11-4-15 Supply Current11-4-16 Power Consumption11-4-17 Slew Rate11-4-18 Gain Bandwidth Product11-4-19 Virtual Ground11-5 Applications of the Operational Amplifier11-5-1 Inverting Mode of Operation11-5-2 Non-Inverting Mode of Operation11-5-3 Voltage Summing, Difference, and Constant Gain Multiplier11-5-4 Voltage Follower or Unity Gain Amplifier11-5-5 Comparator11-5-6 Integrator11-5-7 Differentiator11-5-8 Logarithmic Amplifier11-6 Real-Life Applications
12. Oscillators
12-1 Introduction12-2 Classifications of Oscillators12-3 Circuit Analysis of a General Oscillator12-3-1 Hartley Oscillator12-3-2 Colpitts Oscillator12-3-3 Phase-Shift Oscillator12-3-4 Wien-Bridge Oscillator12-4 Conditions for Oscillation: Barkhausen Criterion12-4-1 Nyquist Criterion for Oscillation12-5 Tuned Oscillator12-5-1 Circuit Analysis12-6 Crystal Oscillator12-7 Real-Life Applications of Oscillators12-7-1 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator12-7-2 Cascode Crystal Oscillator
13. Digital Electronic Principles
13-1 Introduction13-2 Number System13-3 Conversion of Number System13-3-1 Binary to Decimal13-3-2 Decimal to Binary13-3-3 Number System Conversions13-4 Boolean Algebra13-4-1 Addition13-4-2 Subtraction13-4-3 Basic Boolean Laws13-5 Logic Gates13-5-1 AND Gate13-5-2 OR Gate13-5-3 NOT Gate13-5-4 NAND Gate13-5-5 NOR Gate13-5-6 XOR Gate13-5-7 XNOR Gate13-5-8 Universal Gate13-5-9 Characteristics of Logic Gates13-6 De Morgan’s Theorem13-6-1 Using Basic Logic Gates13-6-2 Application of De Morgan’s Theorem13-7 Simplification of Boolean Expression13-8 Logic Gate Circuits13-8-1 Combinational Logic13-8-2 Sequential Logic Circuit13-9 Real-Life Applications of Digital Circuits
14. Electronic Instruments
14-1 Introduction14-2 Components of the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope14-3 Cathode-Ray Tube14-3-1 Electron Gun14-3-2 Deflection Systems14-3-3 Fluorescent Screen14-4 Time-Base Generators14-4-1 Oscilloscope Amplifiers14-4-2 Vertical Amplifiers14-5 Measurements Using the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope14-5-1 Measurement of Frequency14-5-2 Measurement of Phase14-5-3 Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures14-6 Types of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope14-6-1 Analog CRO14-6-2 Digital CRO14-6-3 Storage CRO14-6-4 Dual-Beam CRO14-7 Sweep Frequency Generator14-7-1 Applications of the Sweep Frequency Generator14-8 Function Generator14-9 Sine Wave Generator14-10 Square Wave Generator14-11 AF Signal Generator
Acknowledgements
Copyright

Content preview from Basic Electronics

11 Operational Amplifier

Outline

11-1 Introduction

11-2 Properties of the Ideal Operational Amplifier

11-3 Specifications of IC 741C

11-4 Operational Amplifier and Its Terminal Properties

11-5 Applications of the Operational Amplifier

11-6 Real-Life Applications

Objectives

In this chapter we examine the operational amplifier, which is the basic component of analog computers. The most commonly used op-amp IC is the 8 pin IC 741C. The internal structure of the op-amp, and the basic fabrication steps of integrated circuits are discussed in detail. All the basic terminal properties of the op-amp are also explained in this chapter and some practical applications of the op-amp are illustrated with real-life examples.

11-1 INTRODUCTION

The operational ...

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Electronic Devices and Circuits, 2nd Edition

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Basic Electronics

by Debashis De, Kamakhya Prasad Ghatak

11