book

Basic Electronics

by Debashis De, Kamakhya Prasad Ghatak

March 2010

Beginner

632 pages

18h 50m

English

Pearson India

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Cover
Title Page
Contents
Dedication
Preface
Reviewers
The Author and the Contributor
1. Semiconductor Fundamentals
1-1 Introduction1-2 Crystalline MaterialsSemiconducting Materials1-2-1 Crystals and Crystal Structures1-2-2 Mechanical Properties1-2-3 Energy Band TheorySimplified Derivation of the Fermi–Dirac Statistics1-3 Basis of Classification: Metals, Semiconductors and Insulators1-3-1 Insulators (Eg >> 4 eV)1-3-2 Semiconductors (0 eV ≤ Eg ≤ 4 eV)1-3-3 Metals (Inter-Penetrating Band Structure)1-4 Intrinsic Semiconductors1-5 Extrinsic Semiconductors1-5-1 Doping1-5-2 Dopants1-5-3 Carrier Statistics in n- and p-type SemiconductorsProperties of the Fermi–Dirac Integral
1-6 Electrical Conduction Phenomenon
1-6-1 Mobility1-6-2 Conductivity1-6-3 Diffusion of Carriers1-6-4 Einstein Relation1-6-5 Recombination and Generation Processes1-7 The Continuity Equation1-8 Hall Effect
2. Diode Fundamentals
2-1 Introduction2-2 Formation of the p–n Junction2-3 Energy Band Diagrams2-3-1 The p–n Junction at Thermal Equilibrium2-4 Concepts of Junction Potential2-4-1 Space-Charge Region2-4-2 Built-in and Contact Potentials2-4-3 Effect of Doping on Barrier FieldInvariance of Fermi Level at Thermal Equilibrium2-4-4 Formulation of Built-in Potential2-5 Modes of the p–n Junction2-5-1 The p–n Junction with External Applied Voltage2-5-2 Rectifying Voltage–Current Characteristics of a p–n Junction2-5-3 The Junction Capacitance2-5-4 The Varactor Diode2-6 Derivation of the I–V Characteristics of a p–n Junction Diode2-7 Linear Piecewise Models2-8 Breakdown Diode2-8-1 Zener Breakdown2-8-2 Avalanche Breakdown2-9 Special Types of p–n Junction Semiconductor Diodes2-9-1 Tunnel Diode2-9-2 Light-Emitting Diode2-9-3 Photo Detector Diode2-9-4 Photovoltaic Diode2-10 Applications of Diode2-10-1 Radio Demodulation2-10-2 Power Conversion2-10-3 Over-Voltage Protection2-10-4 Logic Gates2-10-5 Ionizing Radiation Detectors2-10-6 Temperature Measuring2-10-7 Charge-Coupled Devices

3. Diode Circuits
3-1 Introduction3-2 Analysis of Diode Circuits3-3 Load Line and Q-Point3-4 Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator3-4-1 Line Regulation3-4-2 Load Regulation: Regulation with Varying Load Resistance3-5 Rectifiers3-5-1 Half-Wave Rectifier3-5-2 Full-Wave Rectifier3-5-3 Use of Filters in Rectification3-5-4 Regulation3-5-5 Performance Analysis of Various Rectifier Circuits3-6 Clipper and Clamper Circuits3-6-1 Clipper3-6-2 Clamper3-7 Comparators3-8 Additional Diode Circuits3-8-1 Voltage Multiplier3-8-2 Peak Detector3-8-3 Digital Circuits3-8-4 Switching Regulators
4. BJT Fundamentals
4-1 Introduction4-2 Formation of p–n–p and n–p–n Junctions4-3 Transistor Mechanism4-4 Energy Band Diagrams4-5 Transistor Current Components4-5-1 Current Components in p–n–p Transistor4-5-2 Current Components in n–p–n Transistor4-6 CB, CE and CC Configurations4-6-1 Common-Base (CB) Mode4-6-2 Common-Emitter (CE) Mode4-6-3 Common-Collector (CC) Mode4-7 Expression for Current Gain4-7-1 Relationship between α and βEbers–Moll Model of Transistor4-8 Transistor Characteristics4-8-1 Input Characteristics4-8-2 Output Characteristics4-9 Operating Point and the Concept of Load Line4-10 Early Effect
5. BJT Circuits
5-1 Introduction5-2 Biasing and Bias Stability5-2-1 Circuit Configurations5-2-2 Stabilization Against Variations in ICO, VBE and β5-3 Calculation of Stability Factors5-3-1 Stability Factor S5-3-2 Stability Factor S'5-3-3 Stability Factor S''5-3-4 General Remarks on Collector Current Stability5-4 CE, CB Modes and Their Properties5-4-1 Common-Emitter (CE) Mode5-4-2 Common-Base Mode5-5 Small-Signal Low-Frequency Operation of Transistors5-5-1 Hybrid Parameters and Two-Port Network5-6 Equivalent Circuits Through Hybrid Parameters as a Two-Port Network5-7 Transistor as Amplifier5-7-1 The Parameter α'5-8 Expressions of Current Gain, Input Resistance, Voltage Gain and Output Resistance5-8-1 Current Gain (AI)5-8-2 Input Resistance (RI)5-8-3 Voltage Gain (Av)5-8-4 Output Resistance (RO)5-9 Frequency Response for CE Amplifier with and without Source Impedance5-9-1 Conclusions5-10 Emitter Follower5-11 Darlington Pair5-12 Transistor at High Frequencies5-13 Real-Life Applications of the Transistor
6. Field-Effect Transistor
6-1 Introduction6-2 The Field-Effect Transistor6-2-1 Junction Field-Effect Transistor (JFET)6-2-2 Insulated Gate Field-Effect Transistor (IGFET)6-2-3 Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor (MESFET)6-3 Construction of the JFET6-4 Biasing of the JFET6-4-1 Effect of the Gate Voltage6-5 Current–Voltage Characteristics6-6 Transfer Characteristics of the JFET6-7 Construction and Characteristics of the MOSFET6-7-1 Depletion-Type MOSFET6-7-2 Enhancement-Type MOSFET6-8 Complementary MOS6-8-1 Construction of the CMOS6-8-2 CMOS InverterExamination of Mosfets under Two Extremes6-9 Real-Life Applications of the FET
7. FET Circuits
7-1 Introduction7-2 FET Biasing7-2-1 Fixed-Bias Arrangement7-2-2 Self-Bias Arrangement7-2-3 Voltage Divider Biasing Arrangement7-3 FET as an Amplifier7-3-1 DC Bias Point7-3-2 Voltage Gain of the FET7-4 Electrical Parameters of the FET7-5 AC Equivalent Circuit for Small-Signal Analysis7-5-1 Small-Signal Model for the MOSFETT Equivalent-Circuit Model7-6 High-Frequency MOSFET Model7-6-1 Effective Capacitance of the Gate7-6-2 The Junction Capacitance7-6-3 The High-Frequency Models of the MOSFET7-7 Additional FET Circuits7-7-1 MOS Differential Amplifiers7-7-2 Current Source Circuits7-8 Comparison Between the FET and the BJT
8. Special Semiconductor Devices
8-1 Introduction8-2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)8-2-1 Constructional Features8-2-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics8-2-3 I–V Characteristics of the SCR8-2-4 Simple Applications8-3 Triode AC Switch (TRIAC)8-3-1 Constructional FeaturesPhysical Operation and Characteristics of the TRIAC8-4 Diode AC Switch (DIAC)8-4-1 Constructional Features8-4-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics8-4-3 Applications8-5 Unijunction Transistor (UJT)8-5-1 Constructional Features8-5-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics8-5-3 Applications8-6 Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)8-6-1 Constructional Features8-6-2 Physical Operation and Characteristics8-7 Real-Life Applications
9. Feedback Amplifier
9-1 Introduction9-2 Conceptual Development Through Block Diagrams9-2-1 Input Signal9-2-2 Output Signal9-2-3 Sampling Network9-2-4 Comparison or Summing Network9-2-5 Basic Amplifier9-3 Properties of Negative Feedback9-4 Calculations of Open-Loop Gain, Closed-Loop Gain and Feedback Factors9-4-1 Loop Gain or Return Ratio9-5 Topologies of the Feedback Amplifier9-5-1 Voltage-Series or Series-Shunt Feedback9-5-2 Current-Series or Series-Series Feedback9-5-3 Current-Shunt or Shunt-Series Feedback9-5-4 Voltage-Shunt or Shunt-Shunt Feedback9-6 Effect of Feedback on Gain, Input and Output Impedances9-6-1 Effect of Feedback on Input Impedance9-6-2 Effect of Feedback on Output Impedance9-7 Practical Implementations of the Feedback Topologies9-7-1 Voltage-Series Feedback Using Transistor9-7-2 Current-Series Feedback Using Transistor9-7-3 Voltage-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor9-7-4 Current-Shunt Feedback Using Transistor9-8 Sensitivity9-9 Bandwidth Stability9-10 Effect of Positive Feedback9-10-1 Instability and Oscillation9-10-2 Nyquist Criterion9-10-3 Condition of Oscillation9-10-4 Barkhausen Criterion
10. Fundamentals of Integrated Circuit Fabrication
10-1 Introduction10-2 Fundamentals of Integrated Circuits10-3 Types of Integrated Circuits10-3-1 Monolithic IC10-3-2 Hybrid IC10-4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Integrated Circuits10-5 Scale of Integration10-5-1 Types of IC Chips10-6 Crystal Growth and Wafer Preparation10-7 Epitaxial Growth10-8 Oxidation for Isolation10-9 Photolithography for Pattern Transfer10-9-1 Mask Alignment and UV Exposure10-10 Etching for Design10-10-1 Wet Chemical Etching10-10-2 Dry Chemical Etching10-10-3 Chemical Plasma Etching10-10-4 Ion Beam Etching10-10-5 Reactive Ion Etching10-11 Diffusion for Doping10-12 Ion Implantation for Doping10-13 Metallization for Interconnection10-14 Testing for Reliability10-15 Packaging Protection10-16 IC Symbols10-17 Fabrication Steps for Different Circuits10-17-1 Fabrication of Resistors in Integrated Circuits10-17-2 Steps of Fabrication of Capacitors10-17-3 Steps of Fabrication of the Transistor Circuit10-17-4 The Schottky Diode10-17-5 Schematic Diagram of a CMOS Circuit10-18 Real-Life Applications
11. Operational Amplifier
11-1 Introduction11-2 Properties of the Ideal Operational Amplifier11-3 Specifications of IC 741C11-3-1 Description of Op-Amp 741 IC Pins11-4 Operational Amplifier and its Terminal Properties11-4-1 Input Offset Voltage and Output Offset Voltage11-4-2 Input-Bias Current11-4-3 Input Offset Current and Output Offset Current11-4-4 Input Offset Null Voltage11-4-5 Differential Input Resistance11-4-6 Input Capacitance11-4-7 Offset Voltage Adjustment Range11-4-8 Input Voltage Range11-4-9 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)11-4-10 Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR)11-4-11 Large Signal Voltage Gain11-4-12 Output Voltage Swing11-4-13 Output Resistance11-4-14 Supply Voltage11-4-15 Supply Current11-4-16 Power Consumption11-4-17 Slew Rate11-4-18 Gain Bandwidth Product11-4-19 Virtual Ground11-5 Applications of the Operational Amplifier11-5-1 Inverting Mode of Operation11-5-2 Non-Inverting Mode of Operation11-5-3 Voltage Summing, Difference, and Constant Gain Multiplier11-5-4 Voltage Follower or Unity Gain Amplifier11-5-5 Comparator11-5-6 Integrator11-5-7 Differentiator11-5-8 Logarithmic Amplifier11-6 Real-Life Applications
12. Oscillators
12-1 Introduction12-2 Classifications of Oscillators12-3 Circuit Analysis of a General Oscillator12-3-1 Hartley Oscillator12-3-2 Colpitts Oscillator12-3-3 Phase-Shift Oscillator12-3-4 Wien-Bridge Oscillator12-4 Conditions for Oscillation: Barkhausen Criterion12-4-1 Nyquist Criterion for Oscillation12-5 Tuned Oscillator12-5-1 Circuit Analysis12-6 Crystal Oscillator12-7 Real-Life Applications of Oscillators12-7-1 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator12-7-2 Cascode Crystal Oscillator
13. Digital Electronic Principles
13-1 Introduction13-2 Number System13-3 Conversion of Number System13-3-1 Binary to Decimal13-3-2 Decimal to Binary13-3-3 Number System Conversions13-4 Boolean Algebra13-4-1 Addition13-4-2 Subtraction13-4-3 Basic Boolean Laws13-5 Logic Gates13-5-1 AND Gate13-5-2 OR Gate13-5-3 NOT Gate13-5-4 NAND Gate13-5-5 NOR Gate13-5-6 XOR Gate13-5-7 XNOR Gate13-5-8 Universal Gate13-5-9 Characteristics of Logic Gates13-6 De Morgan’s Theorem13-6-1 Using Basic Logic Gates13-6-2 Application of De Morgan’s Theorem13-7 Simplification of Boolean Expression13-8 Logic Gate Circuits13-8-1 Combinational Logic13-8-2 Sequential Logic Circuit13-9 Real-Life Applications of Digital Circuits
14. Electronic Instruments
14-1 Introduction14-2 Components of the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope14-3 Cathode-Ray Tube14-3-1 Electron Gun14-3-2 Deflection Systems14-3-3 Fluorescent Screen14-4 Time-Base Generators14-4-1 Oscilloscope Amplifiers14-4-2 Vertical Amplifiers14-5 Measurements Using the Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope14-5-1 Measurement of Frequency14-5-2 Measurement of Phase14-5-3 Measurement of Phase Using Lissajous Figures14-6 Types of Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope14-6-1 Analog CRO14-6-2 Digital CRO14-6-3 Storage CRO14-6-4 Dual-Beam CRO14-7 Sweep Frequency Generator14-7-1 Applications of the Sweep Frequency Generator14-8 Function Generator14-9 Sine Wave Generator14-10 Square Wave Generator14-11 AF Signal Generator
Acknowledgements
Copyright

Content preview from Basic Electronics

13 Digital Electronic Principles

Outline

13-1 Introduction

13-2 Number System

13-3 Conversion of Number System

13-4 Boolean Algebra

13-5 Logic Gates

13-6 De Morgan’s Theorem

13-7 Simplification of Boolean Expression

13-8 Logic Gate Circuits

13-9 Real-Life Applications

Objectives

This chapter covers the fundamentals of digital electronics with a comprehensive overview of number systems, binary codes, logic gates and the applications of digital circuits. Beginning with an introduction to the history of digital systems, the chapter proceeds to discuss the number system and the conversion from binary to decimal. This is followed by a detailed analysis of Boolean algebra and its laws, supplemented with relevant examples. De Morgan’s theorem ...

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Electronic Devices and Circuits, 2nd Edition

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Basic Electronics

by Debashis De, Kamakhya Prasad Ghatak

13