book

Computer Architecture

by Charles Fox

May 2024

Intermediate to advanced

560 pages

14h 32m

English

No Starch Press

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Who Is This Book For?Why Computer Architecture?Changes in the FieldHow to Use This BookInside Common DevicesDesktop PCLaptopSmartphoneWashing MachineBook OverviewExercisesFurther Reading

What Is a Computer?Before the Industrial RevolutionThe Stone AgeThe Bronze AgeThe Iron AgeThe Islamic Golden AgeThe Renaissance and EnlightenmentThe Steam AgeThe Jacquard LoomVictorian Barrel Organs and Music BoxesBabbage’s Difference EngineBabbage’s Analytical EngineMechanical Differential AnalyzersThe Diesel AgeThe IBM Hollerith Tabulating MachineElectromechanical Differential AnalyzersElectromechanical Machines of World War IIThe Zuse Z3The Electrical AgePure Electronic Cryptology of World War IIENIACVirtual Machine ENIACThe Manchester BabyThe 1950s and Commercial ComputingThe Transistor AgeThe 1960s and Big TransistorsThe 1970s and Integrated CircuitsThe 1980s Golden AgeThe Bland 1990sThe 2000s and Reconnecting the CommunityThe 2010s and the End of Moore’s LawThe 2020s, the Cloud, and the Internet of ThingsSo Who Invented the Computer?SummaryExercisesFurther Reading
A Brief History of Data RepresentationsTally Sticks and Trading TokensRoman NumeralsSplit TalliesArabic and Other NumeralsModern Number SystemsBases and ExponentsBase 10: DecimalBase 2: BinaryBase 1,000Base 60: SexagesimalBase 16: HexadecimalBase 256: BytesHow to Convert Between BasesRepresenting DataNatural NumbersIntegersRationalsFixed PointFloating PointArraysTextMultimedia Data RepresentationData StructuresMeasuring DataSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
A Musical Processing UnitFrom Music to CalculationFrom Calculation to ComputationBabbage’s Central Processing UnitHigh-Level ArchitectureProgrammer InterfaceInternal SubcomponentsInternal OperationSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
Directional SystemsWater ValveHeat Diodep-n Junction DiodeSwitchingWater Current SwitchElectrical Tube Switchp-n-p TransistorWater Pressure Effect SwitchField-Effect TransistorsClocksFabricating TransistorsMoore’s LawSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
Claude Shannon and Logic GatesLogic GatesIdentifying Universal GatesMaking Logic Gates from TransistorsPutting Logic Gates on ChipsBoolean LogicLogic as ArithmeticModel Checking vs. ProofSimplifying Logic Circuits Using Boolean LogicLaying Out Digital Logic7400 ChipsPhotolithographyProgrammable Logic ArraysField Programmable Gate ArraysSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
Combinatorial LogicBitwise Logical OperationsMulti-input Logical OperationsShiftersDecoders and EncodersMultiplexers and DemultiplexersAddersNegators and SubtractorsFrom Combinatorial to Sequential LogicClocked LogicClocked Flip-FlopsCountersSequencersRandom-Access MemorySummaryExercisesFurther Reading
The Baby’s Programmer InterfaceHaltingConstantsLoad and StoreArithmeticJumpsBranchesAssemblersThe Baby’s Internal StructuresRegistersArithmetic Logic UnitControl UnitPutting It All TogetherFetchDecodeExecuteComplete Baby ImplementationSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
Number of User RegistersNumber of InstructionsDuration of InstructionsDifferent Addressing ModesSubroutinesStackless ArchitecturesStack ArchitecturesFloating-Point UnitsPipeliningHazardsHazard CorrectionOut-of-Order ExecutionHyperthreadingSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
Basic I/O ConceptsBusesBus LinesThe CPU-Bus InterfaceI/O ModulesControl and TimingError DetectionI/O Module TechniquesPollingInterruptsDirect Memory AccessI/O Without ModulesCPU I/O PinsMemory MappingBus HierarchiesSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
The Memory HierarchyPrimary MemoryBytes and EndiannessMemory ModulesRandom-Access MemoryRead-Only MemoryCachesCache ConceptsCache Read PoliciesCache Write PoliciesAdvanced Cache ArchitecturesSecondary and Offline MemoryTapesDisksSolid-State DrivesTertiary MemoryData CentersSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
Programming in the 1980s Golden Age8-Bit Era16-Bit EraWorking with the MOS 6502 8-Bit CPUInternal SubcomponentsProgrammer Interface8-Bit Computer Design with the Commodore 64Understanding the ArchitectureProgramming the C64Working with the Motorola 68000 16-Bit CPUInternal SubcomponentsProgrammer Interface16-Bit Computer Design with the Commodore AmigaRetro PeripheralsCathode Ray Tube DisplaysUser InputSerial PortMIDI InterfacesSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
Design PrinciplesSingle PurposeReliabilityMobility and PowerEncapsulationCareful DebuggingMicrocontrollersCPUMemoryTimers and CountersEmbedded I/OAnalog-Digital ConversionEmbedded Serial PortsInter-Integrated Circuit BusController Area Network BusArduinoThe ATmega328 MicrocontrollerThe Rest of the Arduino BoardProgramming ArduinoOther CPU-Based Embedded SystemsAtmel AVR Without the ArduinoPIC MicrocontrollersDigital Signal ProcessorsEmbedded Systems with No CPUProgrammable Logic ControllersEmbedded FPGAsSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
CISC Design PhilosophyMicroprogrammingx86 HistoryPrehistory16-Bit Classical Era32-Bit Clone Wars Era64-Bit Branding EraProgramming x86RegistersNetwide Assembler SyntaxSegmentationBackward-Compatible ModesPC Computer DesignThe Bus HierarchyCommon BusesStandard DevicesSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
Smart DevicesRISC PhilosophyRISC-VUnderstanding the ArchitectureProgramming Core RISC-VExtending RISC-VDifferent RISC-V ImplementationsRISC-V Toolchain and CommunitySmart Computer DesignLow-Power DRAMCamerasTouchscreensSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
Serial vs. Parallel ThinkingSingle Instruction, Multiple Data on CPUIntroduction to SIMDSIMD on x86SIMD on GPUGPU ArchitectureNvidia GPU Assembly ProgrammingSASS DialectsHigher-Level GPU ProgrammingMultiple Instruction, Multiple DataMIMD on a Single ProcessorShared-Memory MIMDMIMD Distributed ComputingInstructionless ParallelismDataflow ArchitecturesDataflow CompilersHardware Neural NetworksSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
The New Golden AgeOpen Source ArchitecturesAtomic-Scale Transistors3D Silicon Architectures10,000-Year MemoryOptical ArchitecturesOptical TransistorsOptical CorrelatorsOptical Neural NetworksDNA ArchitecturesSynthetic BiologyDNA ComputingNeural ArchitecturesTransistors vs. Ion ChannelsLogic Gates vs. NeuronsCopper Wires vs. Chemical SignalsSimple Machines vs. Cortical ColumnsChips vs. CortexParallel vs. Serial ComputationQuantum ArchitecturesA Cartoon Version of Quantum MechanicsThe Math Version of Quantum MechanicsQuantum Registers of QubitsComputation Across WorldsPractical Quantum ArchitecturesFuture Physics ArchitecturesSummaryExercisesFurther Reading
ConcurrencyKernel Mode and User ModeVirtual MemoryDevice DriversLoadersLinkersExtra Boot Sequence StagesHypervisor Mode, Virtualization, and ContainersReal-Time Operating SystemsSpeculative Execution VulnerabilitiesExercisesFurther Reading

Content preview from Computer Architecture

7 DIGITAL CPU DESIGN

We’ve been building up larger and larger components of digital electronic computers, from transistors, to logic gates, to simple machines such as decoders and adders. Now it’s time to put everything together at the top level to make a digital electronic CPU. At least until very recently, the CPU has been the heart of digital electronic computers.

The aim of this chapter is to overcome your fear of digital electronic CPUs. Modern CPUs are probably the second most complex device known to humanity, after the human brain. If you look at a CPU circuit under a microscope and see all the wiring without first preparing your mind, ...