Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load

Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load

by Ruth C. Clark, Frank Nguyen, John Sweller
Released December 2005
Publisher(s): Pfeiffer
ISBN: 9780787977283

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Book description

Efficiency in Learning offers a road map of the most effective ways to use the three fundamental communication of training: visuals, written text, and audio. Regardless of how you are delivering your training materials—in the classroom, in print, by synchronous or asynchronous media—the book’s methods are easily applied to your lesson presentations, handouts, reference guides, or e-learning screens. Designed to be a down-to-earth resource for all instructional professionals, Efficiency in Learning’s guidelines are clearly illustrated with real-world examples.

Table of contents

  1. About This Book
    1. Why is Efficiency in Learning important?
    2. What can you achieve with this book?
    3. How is this book organized?
  2. About Pfeiffer
  3. Copyright
  4. CONTENTS OF THE CD-ROM
  5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
  6. INTRODUCTION
    1. Purpose
    2. Audience
    3. Package Components
    4. Product Description
      1. Part I. An Introduction to Efficiency in Learning (Chapters 1 and 2)
      2. Part II. Basic Guidelines for Managing Irrelevant Cognitive Load (Chapters 3 through 8)
      3. Part III. Instructional Guidelines for Imposing Relevant Cognitive Load (Chapter 9)
      4. Part IV. Tailoring Instruction to Learner Expertise Chapters 10 and 11)
      5. Part V. Cognitive Load Theory in Perspective (Chapters 12 and 13)
      6. Appendix
      7. Glossary
    5. Explanation of Cognitive Load Theory
  7. I. An Introduction to Efficiency in Learning
    1. 1. Cognitive Load and Efficiency in Learning
      1. 1.1. The Costs of Inefficient Instruction
      2. 1.2. What Is Cognitive Load Theory?
        1. 1.2.1. A Definition of Cognitive Load Theory
      3. 1.3. Types of Cognitive Load
        1. 1.3.1. Intrinsic Load
        2. 1.3.2. Germane (Relevant) Load
        3. 1.3.3. Extraneous (Irrelevant) Load
        4. 1.3.4. Balancing Mental Load in Your Training
      4. 1.4. No Yellow Brick Road: The Relativity of Cognitive Load
      5. 1.5. Cognitive Load Theory and Human Learning
      6. 1.6. Evidence-Based Practice
        1. 1.6.1. Evidence for Cognitive Load Theory
        2. 1.6.2. About the Numbers
        3. 1.6.3. Limits of Research
      7. 1.7. Quantifying Efficiency
        1. 1.7.1. The Efficiency Graph
      8. 1.8. The Bottom Line
      9. 1.9. On the CD
        1. 1.9.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 1.9.2. Sample Excel e-Lessons
      10. 1.10. COMING NEXT
    2. Recommended Reading
      2. 1.11. CHAPTER OUTLINE
    3. 2. The Psychology of Efficiency
      1. 2.1. Harnessing Human Learning Processes
      2. 2.2. Our Memory Partners
      3. 2.3. Working Memory and the Significance of the Number 7 ± 2
      4. 2.4. Long-Term Memory and Expertise
        1. 2.4.1. Efficient Instruction Provides Schema Substitutes for Novices
      5. 2.5. Visual and Auditory Centers in Working Memory
        1. 2.5.1. Dual Task Experiments
        2. 2.5.2. Cognitive Load and Learning
      6. 2.6. How Learning Happens
        1. 2.6.1. The Processes of Learning
        2. 2.6.2. Instructional Methods to Promote Instructional Events
      7. 2.7. Automaticity: A Working Memory Bypass
      8. 2.8. The Bottom Line
      9. 2.9. On the CD
        1. 2.9.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 2.9.2. Sample Excel eLesson
      10. 2.10. COMING NEXT
    4. Recommended Readings
  8. II. Basic Guidelines for Managing Extraneous (Irrelevant) Cognitive Load
    1. 3. Use Visuals and Audio Narration to Exploit Working Memory Resources
      1. 3.1. Accelerate Expertise with Dual Modalities
      2. 3.2. Guideline 1: Use Diagrams to Optimize Performance on Tasks Requiring Spatial Manipulations
        1. 3.2.1. How Diagrams Promote Efficient Performance
      3. 3.3. Guideline 2: Use Diagrams to Promote Learning of Rules Involving Spatial Relationships
        1. 3.3.1. Applying the Research
      4. 3.4. Guideline 3: Use Diagrams to Help Learners Build Deeper Understanding
        1. 3.4.1. Are All Diagrams Equal?
        2. 3.4.2. The Psychology of Diagrams for Deeper Learning
      5. 3.5. Guideline 4: Explain Diagrams with Words Presented by Audio Narration
        1. 3.5.1. Applying the Research
      6. 3.6. When to Use Audio to Explain Visuals
        1. 3.6.1. The Delivery Medium Must Carry Audio
        2. 3.6.2. Back-Up Audio with Text to Accommodate Learners with Hearing Impairments
        3. 3.6.3. Use Audio to Explain High Complexity Content
        4. 3.6.4. Use Audio for Low Prior Knowledge Learners
        5. 3.6.5. Use Diagrams and Audio Only When Diagrams and/or Text Require Explanations
        6. 3.6.6. Use Text Rather than Audio When Learners Need Reference to Content
      7. 3.7. Using Audio to Describe Text Rather Than Diagrams
      8. 3.8. The Bottom Line
      9. 3.9. On the CD
        1. 3.9.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 3.9.2. Sample Excel e-Lesson
      10. 3.10. COMING NEXT
    2. Recommended Readings
      3. 3.11. CHAPTER OUTLINE
    3. 4. Focus Attention and Avoid Split Attention
      1. 4.1. Attention and Working Memory
      2. 4.2. Guideline 5: Use Cues and Signals to Focus Attention to Important Visual and Textual Content
        1. 4.2.1. Use Signals to Draw Attention to Verbal Information
        2. 4.2.2. When to Use Signals
        3. 4.2.3. Applying the Research
      3. 4.3. Guideline 6: Integrate Explanatory Text Close to Related Visuals on Pages and Screens to Avoid Split Attention
        1. 4.3.1. Applying the Split Attention Principle
        2. 4.3.2. Applying the Research
      4. 4.4. Integrate Words and Visuals for Teaching Computer Applications in One Delivery Medium to Avoid Split Attention
        1. 4.4.1. Faster Learning from Materials Integrated on the Computer
        2. 4.4.2. Applying the Integrated Media Research to Your Training
      5. 4.5. The Bottom Line
      6. 4.6. On the CD
        1. 4.6.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 4.6.2. Sample e-Lessons
      7. 4.7. COMING NEXT
    4. Recommended Readings
      2. 4.9. CHAPTER OUTLINE
    5. 5. Weed Your Training to Manage Limited Working Memory Capacity
      1. 5.1. The Misconceptions of More
      2. 5.2. Guideline 8: Pare Content Down to Essentials
        1. 5.2.1. Write Concise Instructional Materials
        2. 5.2.2. What Is an Effective Summary?
        3. 5.2.3. Eliminate Related But Unnecessary Technical Content
      3. 5.3. Guideline 9: Eliminate Extraneous Visuals, Text, and Audio
        1. 5.3.1. Omit Extraneous Words and Pictures Added for Interest
        2. 5.3.2. Emotional vs. Cognitive Sources of Motivation
        3. 5.3.3. Omit Extraneous Auditory Content
        4. 5.3.4. Research Applications
      4. 5.4. Guideline 10: Eliminate Redundancy in Content Delivery Modes
        1. 5.4.1. When Are Instructional Materials Redundant?
        2. 5.4.2. Don't Add Words to Self-Explanatory Visuals
        3. 5.4.3. Research Applications
        4. 5.4.4. Accommodating Audiences with Novices and Experts
        5. 5.4.5. Don't Describe Visuals with Words Presented in Both Text and Audio Narration
        6. 5.4.6. Sequence On-Screen Text After Audio to Minimize Redundancy
        7. 5.4.7. When to Narrate Text
        8. 5.4.8. Research Applications
        9. 5.4.9. Avoid Presenting Identical Words and Visuals in a Manual and on Computer in e-Learning
      5. 5.5. The Bottom Line
      6. 5.6. On the CD
        1. 5.6.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 5.6.2. Sample Excel e-Lessons
      7. 5.7. COMING NEXT
    6. Recommended Readings
      2. 5.10. CHAPTER OUTLINE
    7. 6. Provide External Memory Support to Reduce Working Memory Load
      1. 6.1. Bypassing Working Memory
      2. 6.2. Guideline 11: Provide Performance Aids as External Memory Supplements
        1. 6.2.1. What Are Performance Aids?
        2. 6.2.2. When to Create Performance Aids
        3. 6.2.3. Reference-Based Training
        4. 6.2.4. When to Avoid Memory Support
      3. 6.3. Guideline 12: Design Performance Aids by Applying Cognitive Load Management Techniques
        1. 6.3.1. For Spatial Content, Use Visuals as the Predominant Display
        2. 6.3.2. Why Visuals Work Better
        3. 6.3.3. When Possible, Design Self-Explanatory Visuals That Omit Text
        4. 6.3.4. Applying the Research
        5. 6.3.5. When Words Are Needed, Integrate Text into the Visual
        6. 6.3.6. Integrate Performance Aids into the Performance Environment
        7. 6.3.7. An Example of Integrated Performance Aids
        8. 6.3.8. Applying the Research on Computer Performance Aids
        9. 6.3.9. Use Memory Support in Training Environments
        10. 6.3.10. Fading of Memory Support
      4. 6.4. The Bottom Line
      5. 6.5. On the CD
      6. 6.6. COMING NEXT
      7. 6.7. CHAPTER OUTLINE
    8. 7. Use Segmenting, Sequencing, and Learner Pacing to Impose Content Gradually
      1. 7.1. Training Design and Cognitive Load
      2. 7.2. Guideline 13: Teach System Components Before Teaching the Full Process
        1. 7.2.1. What Is Process Knowledge?
        2. 7.2.2. How to Segment and Sequence Process Content
        3. 7.2.3. How to Design Process Lessons
      3. 7.3. Guideline 14: Teach Supporting Knowledge Separate from Teaching Procedure Steps
        1. 7.3.1. What Are Procedures?
        2. 7.3.2. How to Segment and Sequence Procedure Content
        3. 7.3.3. Applying the Research
      4. 7.4. Design Alternatives at the Course Level
      5. 7.5. Guideline 15: Consider the Risks of Cognitive Overload Before Designing Whole Task Learning Environments
        1. 7.5.1. What Is Whole Task Learning?
        2. 7.5.2. Tradeoffs for Whole Task Instruction
      6. 7.6. Guideline 16: Give Learners Control Over Pacing and Manage Cognitive Load When Pacing Must Be Instructionally Controlled
        1. 7.6.1. Applying the Research
      7. 7.7. The Bottom Line
      8. 7.8. On the CD
        1. 7.8.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 7.8.2. Sample Excel e-Lessons
      9. 7.9. COMING NEXT
    9. Recommended Readings
      3. 7.11. CHAPTER OUTLINE
    10. 8. Transition from Worked Examples to Practice to Impose Mental Work Gradually
      1. 8.1. Does Practice Make Perfect?
        1. 8.1.1. What Is a Worked Example?
      2. 8.2. Guideline 17: Replace Some Practice Problems with Worked Examples
        1. 8.2.1. Acceleration of Expertise in the Classroom
        2. 8.2.2. The Psychology of Replacing Practice with Worked Examples
      3. 8.3. Guideline 18: Use Completion Examples to Promote Learning Processing
        1. 8.3.1. What Are Completion Examples?
        2. 8.3.2. The Psychology of Completion Examples
      4. 8.4. Guideline 19: Transition from Worked Examples to Problem Assignments with Backwards Fading
        1. 8.4.1. What Is Backwards Fading?
        2. 8.4.2. The Psychology of Fading
        3. 8.4.3. Applying the Research
      5. 8.5. Guideline 20: Display Worked Examples and Completion Problems in Ways That Minimize Extraneous Cognitive Load
        1. 8.5.1. Applying the Modality and Split Attention Principles to Worked Examples
        2. 8.5.2. How to Display Worked Examples
      6. 8.6. The Bottom Line
      7. 8.7. On the CD
        1. 8.7.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 8.7.2. Sample Excel e-Lessons
      8. 8.8. COMING NEXT
    11. Recommended Readings
  9. III. Instructional Guidelines for Imposing Relevant Cognitive Load
    1. 9. Put Working Memory to Work with Germane Load
      1. 9.1. Shifting from Extraneous to Relevant (Germane) Load
      2. 9.2. Guideline 21: Use Diverse Worked Examples to Foster Transfer of Learning
        1. 9.2.1. Near vs. Far Transfer of Learning
        2. 9.2.2. Getting Beneath the Cover Story
        3. 9.2.3. How to Build Flexible Schemas That Support Far Transfer
        4. 9.2.4. What Are Varied Context Examples?
        5. 9.2.5. The Psychology of Varied Context Worked Examples
        6. 9.2.6. Applying the Research
      3. 9.3. Guideline 22: Help Learners Exploit Examples Through Self-Explanations
        1. 9.3.1. What Are Self-Explanations?
        2. 9.3.2. What Is a Good Self-Explanation?
        3. 9.3.3. Applying the Research
        4. 9.3.4. Self Versus Peer Explanations
      4. 9.4. Guideline 23: Help Learners Automate New Knowledge and Skills
        1. 9.4.1. What Is Automaticity
        2. 9.4.2. How Do Skills Become Automatic?
        3. 9.4.3. When to Build Automatic Skills
        4. 9.4.4. Applying the Research
      5. 9.5. Guideline 24: Promote Mental Rehearsal of Complex Content After Mental Models Are Formed
        1. 9.5.1. What Is Mental Rehearsal?
        2. 9.5.2. When to Use Mental Rehearsal
        3. 9.5.3. Applying the Research
      6. 9.6. The Bottom Line
      7. 9.7. On the CD
        1. 9.7.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 9.7.2. Sample Excel e-Lessons
      8. 9.8. COMING NEXT
    2. Recommended Readings
  10. IV. Tailoring Instruction to Learner Expertise
    1. 10. Accommodate Differences in Learner Expertise
      1. 10.1. Beyond Learning Styles: Which Differences Matter?
        1. 10.1.1. What Are Interactions?
      2. 10.2. How Cognitive Load Changes with Greater Expertise
        1. 10.2.1. Cognitive Load Methods Are Schema Substitutes
      3. 10.3. Expertise Reversal Applied
      4. 10.4. Evidence for Expertise Reversal
        1. 10.4.1. Comparison Group Experiments
        2. 10.4.2. Staged Experiments
      5. 10.5. Guideline 25: Write High Coherent Texts for Low Knowledge Readers
      6. 10.6. Guideline 26: Avoid Interrupting Reading of Low Skilled Readers
        1. 10.6.1. Applying the Research
      7. 10.7. Guideline 27: Eliminate Redundant Content for More Experienced Learners
        1. 10.7.1. When to Drop the Diagram or Drop the Text
      8. 10.8. Guideline 28: Transition from Worked Examples to Problem Assignments as Learners Gain Expertise
        1. 10.8.1. A Review of Research on Worked Examples as Learning Progresses
        2. 10.8.2. Applying the Research
      9. 10.9. Guideline 29: Use Directive Rather Than Guided Discovery Learning Designs for Novice Learners
        1. 10.9.1. Applying the Research
      10. 10.10. The Bottom Line
      11. 10.11. On the CD
        1. 10.11.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 10.11.2. Sample Excel e-Lesson
      12. 10.12. COMING NEXT
    2. Recommended Reading
      2. 10.14. CHAPTER OUTLINE
    3. 11. Use Rapid Testing to Adapt e-Learning to Learner Expertise
      1. 11.1. e-Learning and Adaptive Training
      2. 11.2. A New Method for Rapid Testing
      3. 11.3. Rapid Tests to Adapt Instruction to Learner Expertise
      4. 11.4. Applying Rapid Assessment to Your e-Learning
      5. 11.5. The Bottom Line
      6. 11.6. On the CD
        1. 11.6.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 11.6.2. Sample Excel e-Lessons
      7. 11.7. COMING NEXT
    4. Recommended Readings
  11. V. Cognitive Load Theory in Perspective
    1. 12. Applying Cognitive Load Theory
      1. 12.1. Applying Cognitive Load Theory to Instructional Planning
        1. 12.1.1. Your Target Audience
        2. 12.1.2. The Target Audience for the Excel Course
        3. 12.1.3. Your Content
        4. 12.1.4. Content for the Excel Course
        5. 12.1.5. Your Delivery Media
        6. 12.1.6. Delivery Media for the Excel Course
      2. 12.2. Training Development and Cognitive Load Theory
        1. 12.2.1. Start with Visuals and Performance Aids
        2. 12.2.2. Develop Explanations of Visuals and Performance Aids
        3. 12.2.3. Develop Examples and Practice for Major Tasks
        4. 12.2.4. Develop Supporting Knowledge Topics
      3. 12.3. Challenges Implementing Cognitive Load Theory with Many Authoring Software Packages
        1. 12.3.1. Violations of Redundancy
        2. 12.3.2. Limitations of Cueing Options
        3. 12.3.3. Lack of Technology for Adaptive Learning
      4. 12.4. Applying Cognitive Load Theory to Training Implementation
        1. 12.4.1. Instructor Implementation of Cognitive Load Techniques
        2. 12.4.2. Learner Support in Asynchronous Training
        3. 12.4.3. Training Handouts
      5. 12.5. Evaluating Courseware for Efficiency
      6. 12.6. The Bottom Line
      7. 12.7. On the CD
        1. 12.7.1. John Sweller Video Interview
        2. 12.7.2. Sample Excel e-Lessons
      8. 12.8. COMING NEXT
      9. 12.9. CHAPTER OUTLINE
    2. 13. The Evolution of Cognitive Load Theory
      1. 13.1. Origins
      2. 13.2. Early Years—Problems with Problem Solving
      3. 13.3. Middle Years— The Importance of Failed Experiments
      4. 13.4. Recent Years—The Internationalization of Cognitive Load Theory
      5. 13.5. Current Work
        1. 13.5.1. Measuring Expertise
        2. 13.5.2. Imagination (Mental Rehearsal) Effect
        3. 13.5.3. Evolution of Human Cognitive Architecture
      6. 13.6. Conclusions
  12. A. ALL ABOUT THE NUMBERS
    1. A.1. Calculating and Displaying the Efficiency Metric
      1. A.1.1. The Efficiency Graph
      2. A.1.2. Calculating the Efficiency Metric
      3. A.1.3. Example of Actual Efficiency Values Plotted on the Efficiency Graph
    2. A.2. Statistics and Evidence-Based Practice
      1. A.2.1. Standard Deviations and Means
      2. A.2.2. Statistical Significance
    3. A.3. Practical Significance and Effect Sizes
  13. GLOSSARY
  14. REFERENCES
  15. ABOUT THE AUTHORS
  16. LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
  17. HOW TO USE THE CD-ROM
    1. System Requirements
    2. Using the CD With Windows
    3. In Case of Trouble

Product information

  • Title: Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load
  • Author(s): Ruth C. Clark, Frank Nguyen, John Sweller
  • Release date: December 2005
  • Publisher(s): Pfeiffer
  • ISBN: 9780787977283