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Handbook of Human Performance Technology: Principles, Practices, and Potential, Third Edition

Name: Handbook of Human Performance Technology: Principles, Practices, and Potential, Third Edition
ISBN: 9780787965303

by James Pershing, Harold D. Stolovitch, Erica J. Keeps

March 2006

Intermediate to advanced

1408 pages

40h 4m

English

Pfeiffer

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FOREWORD TO THE THIRD EDITION
THE HANDBOOK OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY: A FOUNDATION DOCUMENT
HPT: HOW FAR WE HAVE COMETHE RELEVANCE OF HPTTHE EMERGENCE OF HUMAN CAPITALAND SO THIS THIRD EDITION OF THE HANDBOOK OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY . . .References
PREFACE
INTENDED AUDIENCESOVERVIEW OF THE CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
THE EDITOR AND EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
FOREWORD TO THE FIRST EDITION
SCIENCE HAS A CLEAR SUBJECT MATTERSCIENCE SIMPLIFIESSCIENCE IS GROUNDED IN MEASUREMENTSCIENCE IS CAREFUL OF ITS LANGUAGEENGINEERING SCIENCE FOCUSES ON ITS MOST PROMISING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
FOREWORD TO THE SECOND EDITION
WHAT IS HPT?IT WASN'T ALWAYS THUSBRIGHT WITH PROMISESCIENCE-BASEDTHERE'S STILL WORK TO BE DONETHE REWARD IS WORTH THE EFFORT
I. FOUNDATIONS OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY
1. Human Performance Technology Fundamentals
1.1. A DEFINITION OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY1.2. ELEMENTS OF THE DEFINITION1.2.1. Study1.2.2. Ethical Practice1.2.3. Improving Productivity1.2.4. Organizations1.2.5. Designing and Developing1.2.6. Effective1.2.7. Interventions1.2.8. Results-Oriented1.2.9. Comprehensive and Systemic1.3. PERFORMANCE-IMPROVEMENT MODEL1.3.1. Getting Started1.3.2. Perception Analysis1.3.3. Strategic Alignment with Organizational Mission, Goals, and Objectives1.3.4. Performance Analysis1.3.5. Intervention Selection1.3.6. Feasibility Analysis1.3.7. Design, Development, and Implementation1.3.8. Evaluation and Feedback1.4. IS THERE MAGIC IN HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY?1.5. CONCLUSIONS1.5.1. References

2. The Performance Architect's Essential Guide to the Performance Technology Landscape
2.1. INTRODUCTION2.2. THE PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY LANDSCAPE2.2.1. What Is Performance?2.2.2. What Is Performance Technology?2.2.3. Mapping the Performance-Improvement Journey2.3. WHAT IS PERFORMANCE ARCHITECTURE?2.3.1. Performance Systems2.3.2. Performance Map2.3.3. Tip of the Iceberg2.3.4. Other Models and Tools2.3.5. Evaluation2.4. THE SAVVY PERFORMANCE-IMPROVEMENT PROFESSIONAL'S GUIDE TO SUCCESSFUL PERFORMANCE (TECHNOLOGY): A DECEPTIVELY SIMPLE LIST2.5. HEADING HOME2.5.1. Landscape Model2.5.2. Systems Model2.5.3. Performance Architecture2.5.4. Performance Map and the Tip of the Iceberg2.5.5. Feedback and Evaluation2.5.6. The List2.5.7. Travelers' Advisory2.5.8. References2.5.9. Additional Resources
3. Business Perspectives for Performance Technologists
3.1. WHY UNDERSTANDING THE BUSINESS IS IMPORTANT3.2. HOW HPT PRACTITIONERS CAN IMPROVE THEIR BUSINESS UNDERSTANDING3.3. THE BUSINESS LOGICS MODEL3.3.1. Uses of the Business Logics Model3.3.2. Overview of the Model3.3.3. Gathering Data for the Various Logics and Metrics3.4. THE MODEL, LOGIC BY LOGIC3.4.1. External Logic3.4.2. Economic Logic3.4.3. Strategy Logic3.4.4. Customer Logic3.4.5. Product Logic3.4.6. Process Logic3.4.7. Internal Logic3.5. WORKSHEETS AND HOW TO USE THE MODEL3.6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION3.6.1. References
4. Performance Improvement: Enabling Commitment to Changing Performance Requirements
4.1. THE PRIMACY OF PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS4.2. ROLE SETS: STABILIZER OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND RESISTER OF PERFORMANCE CHANGE4.3. ALIGNING REQUIREMENTS ACROSS FORMAL AND ROLE-SET STRUCTURES4.4. CASE STUDY: A SOFTWARE PROGRAM TEAM4.4.1. The Monthly All Hands Program Meeting4.4.2. The Weekly Project Team Meetings4.4.3. The Weekly Program Team Meeting4.5. GUIDELINES FOR HPT PRACTITIONERS4.5.1. Help the Client Focus on Its Process for Setting and Realigning Performance Requirements4.5.2. Get into the Real Meetings and Deal with the Real Issues4.5.3. Work with at Least Three Levels of the Hierarchy at Once4.6. CONCLUSION4.6.1. References
5. Systemic Issues
5.1. RELEVANCE OF SYSTEMIC ISSUES TO HPT CERTIFICATION STANDARDS5.2. ORGANIZATIONS ARE SYSTEMS5.2.1. Organizations as Systems in the Fictional World5.2.2. Organizations as Systems in the Real World5.3. POINTS OF THEORY AND SYSTEM PRINCIPLES IN THE STORIES5.3.1. Points of Theory: The System5.3.2. Six Key Points of Theory5.3.3. Three System Principles5.4. LINKING THEORY, PRINCIPLE, AND PRACTICE5.4.1. Dealing with Systemic Issues: Fundamental Questions5.4.2. Systemic Question 1: What is the system performance?5.4.3. Systemic Question 2: How does the system fit into the environment?5.4.4. Systemic Question 3: What are the parts of the system?5.4.5. Systemic Question 4: How are value set variables maintained?5.4.6. Systemic Question 5: How do the governance processes function?5.5. THE HPT CERTIFICATION STANDARDS5.5.1. How Working Systemically Generates Documentation for the Standards5.5.2. How Working Systemically Is Fundamental to HPT5.5.3. How Failure to Work Systemically Produces Suboptimal Results5.6. CONCLUSION5.6.1. References
6. Mega Planning and Thinking: Defining and Achieving Measurable Success
6.1. WHAT IS THE SOCIETAL VALUE-ADDED PERSPECTIVE AND FRAME OF MIND?6.2. AN OVERVIEW OF THE BASIC CONCEPTS AND TOOLS FOR MEGA PLANNING6.2.1. Guide One: Defining and Aligning Everything an Organization Uses, Does, Produces, and Delivers, and the Resulting Measurable Value Added6.2.2. Guide Two: Defining, Justifying, and Resolving Problems6.2.3. Guide Three: Six Critical Success Factors of Strategic Thinking and Planning6.2.4. Mega Planning: Getting Agreement6.2.5. Mega Planning Is Proactive6.3. THE SIX CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS IN BRIEF6.3.1. CSF 1: Use New and Wider Boundaries for Thinking, Planning, Doing, Evaluating, and Continuous Improvement6.3.2. CSF 2: Differentiate Between Ends and Means by Focusing on "What" Before "How"6.3.3. CSF 3: Use, Link, and Align All Three Levels of Planning and Results6.3.4. CSF 4: Prepare Objectives, Including Those for the Ideal Vision and Mission, to Contain Precise Indicators of Where You Are Headed and How You Will Know When You Have Arrived6.3.5. CSF 5: Define "Need" as a Gap Between Current and Desired Results and Not as Insufficient Levels of Resources, Means, or Methods6.3.6. CSF 6: Use an Ideal Vision as the Underlying Basis for All Planning and Continuous Improvement6.4. CONCLUSION6.4.1. Notes6.4.2. References6.4.3. Additional Resources
7. The Origins and Evolution of Human Performance Technology
7.1. HISTORICAL ORIGINS AND EVOLUTION OF HPT7.1.1. Changing Views of Performance Management from Antiquity to the 1950s' Intuitive Culture-Based Management7.1.2. HPT as an Outgrowth of the Pragmatic Philosophy7.1.3. Integrating Cognitive Psychology and Information Technology7.2. FIRST VISIBLE SIGNS OF HPT AND ITS SCALABILITY7.2.1. Brethower's Five Performance Principles7.2.2. Behavior Systems Analysis as the Total Performance System7.2.3. Rationale for the Paradigm Shift from Mechanical Determinism to System Theory7.2.4. Behavior Engineering and PROBE Models7.2.5. Front-End Analysis7.2.6. Managing the White Space and Serious Performance Consulting7.2.7. The Organizational Scan, Performance Levers, and Alignment7.2.8. Strategic Planning for Success7.2.9. The Performance Learning-Satisfaction (PLS) Evaluation System7.2.10. Language for Work That Works7.2.11. The Metamodel of Performance Improvement7.3. TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY HPT7.3.1. Strengths7.3.2. Weaknesses7.3.3. Threats7.3.4. Opportunities7.3.5. Notes7.3.6. References
II. THE PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY PROCESS
8. Aligning Human Performance Technology Decisions with an Organization's Strategic Direction
8.1. STRATEGIC DIRECTION8.1.1. Unconventional Wisdom8.1.2. A Model for Effective Direction Setting8.1.3. Analysis of Strategic Direction8.2. DEFINING SUCCESS8.2.1. How Is Your Success Defined?8.2.2. Making Decisions8.3. HPT IMPLICATIONS8.4. SUMMARY8.4.1. References
9. Analysis and More
9.1. AN EXPANDING VIEW OF ANALYSIS: ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION9.2. ANALYSIS GOALS AND REQUESTS9.2.1. Goals9.2.2. Requests9.3. OBSTACLES TO ANALYSIS9.3.1. Blame It on the Organization9.3.2. Blame It on the Executives9.3.3. Blame It on the First-Line Supervisors9.3.4. Blame It on Ourselves9.4. TRENDS IN ANALYSIS9.4.1. Data Hounds for Analysis and Evaluation9.4.2. Performance Consulting9.4.3. Converging Learning, Performance, and Work9.5. CONCLUSION9.5.1. References
10. Requirements: The Bridge Between Analysis and Design
10.1. WHAT IS A REQUIREMENT?10.2. THE PERFORMANCE SYSTEMS ENGINEERING APPROACH USING REQUIREMENTS10.2.1. Categories of Requirements10.2.2. Deriving Requirements from Analysis Data10.3. THE VALUE OF EXPLICIT REQUIREMENTS10.3.1. Stakeholder Approval10.3.2. Design10.3.3. Development10.3.4. Implementation10.4. EXAMPLES OF REQUIREMENTS FOR DIFFERENT KINDS OF PERFORMANCE SOLUTIONS10.4.1. Instructional System Example10.4.2. Organization Redesign Example10.4.3. Qualification System Design Example10.4.4. Feedback System Example10.5. SUMMARY10.5.1. Reference10.5.2. Additional Resource
11. Modeling Mastery Performance and Systematically Deriving the Enablers for Performance Improvement
11.1. INTRODUCTION TO THE KEY DATA SETS11.1.1. Performance Models11.1.2. Enabler Matrices11.1.3. Other Analyses Potentially Required11.2. INTRODUCTION TO THE DATA SET USAGES11.2.1. Three Performance Variables That May Need Changing11.2.2. Process Design and Redesign11.2.3. Human Asset Management Systems Changes11.2.4. Environmental Asset Management Systems Changes11.3. THE PROCESS OF MODELING MASTERY PERFORMANCE11.3.1. Establishing Areas of Performance11.3.2. Creating Performance Model Charts11.4. THE GOAL AND PROCESS OF ENABLER ANALYSIS11.4.1. Establishing Enabler Categories11.4.2. Creating Enabler Matrices Charts11.5. THE PARTICIPANTS OR TEAMS AND THEIR ROLES11.5.1. The Team Rationale and Approach11.5.2. Project Steering Team11.5.3. Analysis Team11.5.4. Downstream Teams for Performance-Improvement Design and Development11.5.5. The Nonteam Approach11.6. THE IMPACT OF THE DATA ON THE ENTERPRISE PROCESSES11.6.1. Process Design and Redesign11.6.2. The Impact of the Data on the Human-Asset Management Systems11.6.3. The Impact of the Data on the Environmental-Asset Management Systems11.7. SUMMARY11.7.1. Resources
12. Dimensions of Organizational Change
12.1. UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE12.1.1. Defining Organizational Change12.1.2. Why Do Organizations Change?12.1.3. Forms of Organizational Change12.1.4. Organizational Forces and Targets for Change12.1.5. Organizational Change Stages12.2. WHY MANAGE CHANGE?12.3. PLANNING CHANGE12.3.1. Understanding Organizational Goals and Values12.3.2. Conducting Organizational Diagnosis12.3.3. Defining Change-Management Strategy12.3.4. Selecting a Change-Management Model12.3.5. Developing Change-Management Methods and Tools12.3.6. Defining Roles in the Change Process12.3.7. Designing Change-Management Plans12.4. IMPLEMENTING CHANGE12.4.1. Facilitating the Individual Change-Adoption Process12.4.2. Adoption Stages12.4.3. Adopter Categories12.4.4. Managing Resistance12.4.5. Measuring Organizational Change12.5. DEVELOPING STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINING CHANGE EFFORTS12.5.1. Designing Communication and Training Programs12.5.2. Implementing Incentive and Recognition Strategies12.6. PLANNING FURTHER STEPS12.6.1. References
13. Using Evaluation to Measure and Improve the Effectiveness of Human Performance Technology Initiatives
13.1. THE WHAT AND WHY OF EVALUATION13.1.1. Purposes for Evaluation13.1.2. Evaluation as Systematic Reflection13.1.3. The Process of Evaluation13.2. EVALUATION AS PART OF AN ITERATIVE HPT STRATEGY13.3. THE FIVE FATAL HPT ERRORS13.3.1. Errors of Direction13.3.2. Errors of Analysis13.3.3. Errors of Design13.3.4. Errors of Implementation13.3.5. Errors of Sustained Impact13.4. A FIVE-PHASE FRAMEWORK FOR EVALUATION OF HPT13.4.1. Phase 1: Set HPT Goals13.4.2. Phase 2: Analyze Performance Issues13.4.3. Phase 3: Design HPT Initiative13.4.4. Phase 4: Implement HPT Initiative13.4.5. Phase 5: Sustaining Impact and Worthy Performance13.5. SUMMARY13.5.1. References13.5.2. Additional Resources
14. The Full Scoop on Full-Scope Evaluation
14.1. WHAT EVALUATION IS; WHAT IT IS NOT14.2. MILESTONES IN THE EVOLUTION OF EVALUATION PRACTICE14.3. EVALUATION MODELS14.3.1. Curriculum Evaluation Models14.3.2. Training Evaluation Models14.3.3. Eclectic Models14.3.4. Full-Scope Evaluation: A Timely New Model14.4. FULL-SCOPE EVALUATION: AN OVERVIEW14.4.1. Zooming Out: Definition, Purpose, and a Model14.4.2. Zooming In: The Components of Full-Scope Evaluation14.4.3. Zooming In: Full-Scope Evaluation Activities14.5. THINKING INSIDE THE BOX14.6. IMPLEMENTING FULL-SCOPE EVALUATION IN THE REAL WORLD14.6.1. Full-Scope Evaluation Toolkit for the HPT Practitioner14.6.2. Can You Get There from Here? The Future of Full-Scope Evaluation14.6.3. Call to Action14.6.4. References14.6.5. Additional Resources
III. INTERVENTIONS AT THE WORKER AND WORK TEAM LEVELS
15. Instruction as an Intervention
15.1. INSTRUCTION AIMS AT IMPROVING CAPABILITIES15.1.1. Instruction Is One of Many Performance Interventions15.1.2. Distinguishing Information Giving from Instruction15.1.3. Distinguishing Cognitive Support from Instruction15.2. PLANNING INSTRUCTION15.2.1. Instructional Design and Development Models15.2.2. Specifying Goals and Objectives15.2.3. Instructional Methods and Media15.3. LESSON FRAMEWORKS15.3.1. Behaviorist Framework15.3.2. Cognitive Framework15.3.3. A Constructivist Framework15.3.4. An Eclectic Framework15.4. DELIVERY ENVIRONMENTS FOR INSTRUCTION15.4.1. Face-to-Face Classroom Instruction15.4.2. Distance Learning via Synchronous Telecommunications Media15.4.3. Distance Learning via Asynchronous Computer-Based Media15.4.4. Games and Simulations15.4.5. Independent Self-Study15.4.6. Blended Learning15.4.7. Selecting Delivery Systems15.5. EVALUATING INSTRUCTION AND ASSESSING LEARNER OUTCOMES15.5.1. Formative Evaluation of Instruction15.5.2. Summative Evaluation of Instruction15.5.3. Confirmative Evaluation of Instruction15.5.4. Formative Assessment of Learners15.5.5. Summative Assessment of Learners15.5.6. Confirmative Assessment of Learners15.6. CONCLUSION15.6.1. References
16. Designing Instructional Strategies: A Cognitive Perspective
16.1. THE COGNITIVE APPROACH TO DESIGNING INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES16.1.1. How Learning Occurs from a Cognitive Point of View16.1.1.1. Perception and Sensory Stores16.1.1.2. Short-Term or Working Memory16.1.1.3. Long-Term Memory16.1.2. Types of Knowledge16.2. THE COGNITIVE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODEL16.3. USING THE MODEL TO BEGIN ANY LESSON16.4. USING THE MODEL TO TEACH FACTS16.4.1. Issues16.4.2. General Strategies for Teaching Facts16.4.3. Teaching Facts Using the Lesson Elements16.4.3.1. Assimilate16.4.3.2. Strengthen16.5. USING THE MODEL TO TEACH CONCEPTS16.5.1. Issues16.5.2. General Strategies for Teaching Concepts16.5.3. Teaching Concepts Using the Lesson Elements16.5.3.1. Link16.5.3.2. Organize16.5.3.3. Assimilate16.5.3.3.1. Sequencing16.5.3.3.2. Range16.5.3.4. Strengthen16.6. USING THE MODEL TO TEACH PRINCIPLES AND MENTAL MODELS16.6.1. General Strategies for Teaching Principles and Mental Models16.6.2. How to Teach Principles and Mental Models Using the Lesson Elements16.6.2.1. Link16.6.2.2. Organize16.6.2.3. Assimilate16.6.2.4. Strengthen16.7. USING THE MODEL TO TEACH PROCEDURES OR WELL-STRUCTURED PROBLEM SOLVING16.7.1. General Strategies for Teaching Procedures and Well-Structured Problem Solving16.7.2. Teaching Procedures or Well-Structured Problem Solving Using the Lesson Elements16.7.2.1. Link16.7.2.2. Organize16.7.2.3. Assimilate16.7.2.4. Strengthen16.8. USING THE MODEL TO TEACH ILL-STRUCTURED PROBLEM SOLVING16.8.1. Issues16.8.2. General Strategies for Teaching Ill-Structured Problem Solving16.8.3. Teaching Ill-Structured Problem Solving Using the Lesson Elements16.8.3.1. Link16.8.3.2. Organize16.8.3.3. Assimilate16.8.3.4. Strengthen16.9. TEACHING LESSONS COMBINING DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEARNING16.10. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION16.10.1. References
17. Games and Simulations for Training: From Group Activities to Virtual Reality
17.1. CLASSIC PERCEPTIONS OF GAMES17.2. OUTCOMES, ASPECTS, AND CHARACTERISTICS OF GAMES17.2.1. Outcomes17.2.2. Aspects and Characteristics17.3. WHAT ARE SIMULATIONS (SIMS)?17.3.1. Outcomes17.3.2. Aspects: Why Not Characteristics?17.3.3. Characteristics17.4. CASE STUDIES17.4.1. Training on Insurance Benefits for Helpline Trainees17.4.2. Pre- and Post-Test Simulations for Pharmaceutical Sales17.4.3. Algorithmic Strategy Simulation for Resource Management17.4.4. Porting Real Data into Virtual Space for Automobile Design and Manufacturing17.5. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT17.5.1. Analysis Focus17.5.2. Design Focus17.5.3. Outcomes Targeting Training or Evaluation17.5.4. Game and Simulation Rules and Models17.5.5. Play Time, Apperception of Content, and Complexity17.5.6. Debriefing and Feedback Complexity17.5.7. Development Focus17.5.8. Time and Resources17.5.9. Performance Tracking and Scoring17.6. ROI AND SUMMARY17.6.1. References
18. Distance Training
18.1. DISTANCE TRAINING: A NOVELTY OR A REAL SOLUTION?18.1.1. Is the Excitement about Distance Training Justified?18.1.2. How Is the Distance Training Format Different from Traditional Instruction?18.1.3. Why Are These Features Valuable?18.1.4. How Much Evidence Is There to Support Claims of the Distance Advocates?18.2. THE STATUS OF DISTANCE TRAINING18.3. WHY CORPORATIONS ARE ADOPTING DISTANCE LEARNING18.4. PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION OF DISTANCE TRAINING18.4.1. Functions of the Distance Training Administrative Team18.4.2. Potential Issues and Obstacles to Be Addressed by the Administrative Team18.4.3. Stages of Organizational Capability for Distance Training18.5. BLENDED LEARNING: A LOOK INTO THE FUTURE18.6. SUMMARY18.6.1. References
19. Innovations in Performance Improvement with Mentoring
19.1. MENTORING: THE PROCESS, ROLES, AND TASKS19.2. EVOLUTION OF THE MENTORING CONCEPT19.2.1. Different Structures Called Mentoring19.3. ECONOMIC IMPACT OF SKILLS LOSS19.3.1. Cultural Due Diligence19.3.2. Professional or Technical Skills Transfer19.4. KEY ELEMENTS TO MAKING MENTORING WORK19.5. RETURN ON INVESTMENT: PERCEPTION AND REALITY19.5.1. Benefits for the Mentor19.5.2. Organizational Benefits19.5.3. Benefits to Supervisors19.6. PITFALLS AND PREVENTIVE ACTIONS19.7. SYSTEMATIC DESIGN19.8. CHALLENGES OF SCALING UP19.9. CONCLUSION19.9.1. Note19.9.2. References
20. Motivating Individuals, Teams, and Organizations
20.1. WHAT IS MOTIVATION?20.1.1. What Causes Motivation?20.1.2. What Kills Motivation in Organizations?20.1.3. What Helps Motivation? Universal Motivators That Work for Everyone20.2. DIFFERENT TYPES OF VALUES FOR WORK GOALS20.3. FINANCIAL INCENTIVES THAT CREATE VALUE20.3.1. Types of Financial Incentive Programs20.3.2. Disputes about Incentive Systems20.4. MOTIVATING TEAMS20.4.1. Why Is Team Motivation Different from Individual Motivation?20.4.2. What Motivates Teams?20.5. CONCLUSION20.5.1. References
21. Shifting Organizational Alignment from Behavior to Values
21.1. WHY ALIGNMENT MATTERS21.1.1. Alignment in Lean Organizations21.1.2. Alignment in Growing Organizations21.1.3. Identifying Alignment-Intervention Warning Signs21.1.4. Sharing Control in Order to Increase It21.1.5. Empowered Teams21.2. THE NATURE OF CONTROL: GETTING BEYOND MERE AUTONOMY21.2.1. Alignment Approaches21.2.2. Alignment and Its Link to Power21.3. SHIFTING TO AN UNOBTRUSIVE APPROACH21.3.1. Over-Control21.3.2. Under-Control21.3.3. Balancing the Transition to Autonomy21.3.4. Moving on to Empowerment21.4. CONCLUSION21.4.1. Summary of Main Points21.4.2. References
22. Principles and Practices of Work-Group Performance
22.1. THE CONTEXT OF GROUP PERFORMANCE22.1.1. When Is a Group Necessary?22.1.2. What Are the Requisite Conditions for a Successful Work Group?22.2. GROUP ROLES22.2.1. Group Leader22.2.2. Subject-Matter Experts22.2.3. Facilitator22.2.4. Decision Makers and Stakeholders22.2.5. Sensitivity to Social Dynamics22.3. LEVELS OF GROUP PLANNING22.3.1. Operational22.3.2. Tactical22.3.3. Strategic22.4. MODELING THE PROBLEM OR DECISION22.4.1. Defining Criteria22.4.2. Exploring the Problem Space22.4.3. Exploring the Solution Space22.4.4. Conducting Sensitivity Analyses and Resolving Disagreements22.4.5. Communicating Results and Garnering Support22.5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS22.5.1. Notes22.5.2. References
23. Performance Support Systems
23.1. INTRODUCTION23.1.1. Authors' Approach23.1.2. Description of PSS23.2. BASIC CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY23.2.1. Learning23.2.2. Guidance and Tracking23.2.3. Task-Structuring Support23.2.4. Knowledge Management23.2.5. Communities of Practice23.2.6. Tools23.2.7. Motivation23.3. VARIATIONS23.3.1. Integration23.3.2. Scale or Level23.3.3. Wearability23.3.4. Nomenclature23.4. PSS EXAMPLES23.4.1. On-Line External Example23.4.2. On-Line-Intrinsic Example23.5. BENEFITS OF PSS23.6. PROJECT-DEVELOPMENT CONSIDERATIONS23.6.1. Collaboration23.6.2. Design23.6.3. Implementation23.6.4. Evaluation23.7. ANOTHER LOOK TOWARD THE FUTURE23.7.1. References
IV. INTERVENTIONS AT THE WORKPLACE AND ORGANIZATIONAL LEVELS
24. The Impact of Organizational Development
24.1. CASE SCENARIO24.2. WHAT IS ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT?24.3. DEFINING THE IDEAL STATE24.3.1. Defining Deliverables24.3.2. Defining Processes24.3.3. Defining Knowledge, Skills, and Attributes24.3.4. Defining Resources24.3.5. Defining Effort or Execution24.4. DEFINING THE CURRENT STATE24.4.1. X-Press Current State: Deliverables24.4.2. X-Press Current State: Processes24.4.3. X-Press Current State: KSAs24.4.4. X-Press Current State: Resources24.4.5. X-Press Current State: Effort or Execution24.5. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CLOSING PERFORMANCE GAPS24.6. DESIGNING ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT SOLUTIONS24.6.1. Designing OD Solutions Aimed at Process Deficiencies24.6.2. Designing OD Solutions Aimed at KSA Deficiencies24.6.3. Designing OD Solutions Aimed at Resource Deficiencies24.6.4. Designing OD Solutions Aimed at Effort Deficiencies24.7. IMPLEMENTING THE OD SOLUTION24.7.1. Assigning Ownership of Deliverables24.7.2. Managing the Project24.7.3. Overcoming Resistance24.8. MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION24.9. CONCLUSION24.9.1. X-Press: Designed OD Solutions24.9.2. X-Press: Implementation Plan24.9.3. X-Press: Evaluation of Effectiveness24.9.4. Impact of OD Solutions on Attrition24.9.5. References
25. The Fifth Discipline: A Systems Learning Model for Building High-Performing Learning Organizations
25.1. SYSTEMS THINKING: THE HEART OF THE LEARNING ORGANIZATION25.2. THE REMAINING CORE DISCIPLINES IN GREATER DEPTH25.2.1. Personal Mastery25.2.2. Mental Models25.2.3. Shared Vision25.2.4. Team Learning25.3. LINKS TO HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY25.4. THE AUTHORS' EXPERIENCE WITH ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING25.4.1. The Basis of the Authors' Work25.4.2. Single- and Double-Loop Learning25.5. THE TOOLS OF ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING AND SYSTEMS LEARNING25.5.1. Check-In, Check-Out25.5.2. Dialogue: Raising the Level of Knowledge in a Team25.5.3. Causal-Loop Diagrams25.5.4. Thinking with Hexagons25.5.5. Advocacy and Inquiry25.5.6. Ladder of Inference25.5.7. Reflection25.5.8. Operation Adventure25.5.9. The Beer Distribution Game25.5.10. Clearness Committee25.5.11. Organizational Engineering: I-OPT25.5.12. Strategic Thinking25.5.13. Scenario Planning25.6. EVALUATING THE SYSTEMS LEARNING MODEL25.7. THE UM-DEARBORN ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING COURSE25.8. EVALUATING THE EFFICACY OF THE COURSE25.8.1. Note25.8.2. References
26. Knowledge Management, Organizational Performance, and Human Performance Technology
26.1. BASIC CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY26.1.1. Data, Information, and Knowledge26.1.2. Coordination and Communication26.1.3. Costs and Results26.1.4. Symptoms of Problems26.2. ORGANIZATIONAL LEARNING, COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE, AND INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL26.3. THE KNOWLEDGE LIFE CYCLE26.3.1. Create or Learn, and Identify26.3.2. Organize and Codify26.3.3. Store26.3.4. Distribute26.3.5. Use26.3.6. Maintain26.4. ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT26.5. CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS26.6. KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY26.7. ESTABLISHING A KNOWLEDGE-MANAGEMENT SYSTEM26.7.1. Assess26.7.2. Design26.7.3. Develop26.7.4. Prototype and Pilot26.7.5. Implement26.7.6. Maintain26.8. THE FUTURE OF KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT26.9. CONCLUSION26.9.1. References26.9.2. Additional Resources26.9.3. Websites26.9.4. Printed Resources
27. Coming to Terms with Communities of Practice: A Definition and Operational Criteria
27.1. WHY BOTHER WITH A CoP?27.1.1. Theoretical, Practical, and Psychological Underpinnings of Communities of Practice27.1.2. Knowledge Conceptualization27.1.3. Benefits of a CoP27.2. COMMUNITIES OF PRACTICE: SIX CHARACTERISTICS27.2.1. A Common Practice and Shared Enterprise27.2.2. Opportunities for Interaction and Participation27.2.3. Mutual Interdependence27.2.4. Overlapping Histories, Practices, and Understandings among Members27.2.5. Mechanisms for Reproduction27.2.6. Respect for Diverse Perspectives and Minority Views27.3. THE EMERGENCE OF A CoP27.3.1. Promoting a CoP27.3.2. Lingering Questions about Communities of Practice27.3.3. Warnings and Cautions: What Experience Tells Us about Working with Communities of Practice27.4. CONCLUSION27.4.1. Appendix: Guiding or Evaluative Criteria for Examining a Designed CoP27.4.2. References
28. Workplace Design
28.1. THE ERGONOMIC APPROACH TO WORKPLACE DESIGN28.2. WHO?: HUMAN REQUIREMENTS IN WORKSPACE DESIGN28.2.1. Common Work Environment Needs28.2.2. Variable Work Environment Needs28.3. WHAT?: TASK REQUIREMENTS IN WORKSPACE DESIGN28.3.1. Mental Aspects of Tasks28.3.2. Physical Aspects of Tasks28.3.3. Group and Team Tasks28.4. WHERE?: WORKSPACE PLANNING28.4.1. Noise Reduction28.4.2. Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning28.4.3. Furniture28.4.4. Storage28.4.5. Lighting28.4.6. Color28.4.7. Music28.4.8. Spaces That Facilitate Collaboration28.4.9. Building Location28.4.10. Indoor Air Quality28.4.11. The Home Office28.5. HOW?: WORKING SMARTER ERGONOMICALLY28.5.1. Ergonomically Designed Tools28.5.2. Ergonomically Designed Information28.5.3. Educating Workers28.6. WHEN?: WORK SCHEDULES28.6.1. Alternative Work Schedules28.6.2. Shift Work28.6.3. The Demise of the Forty-Hour Week: The Rise of 24 × 728.7. WHY?: POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF WORKPLACE DESIGN28.7.1. Benefits for Workers28.7.2. Benefits for Employers28.8. SUCCESS STORIES28.8.1. References
29. Six Sigma: Increasing Human Performance Technology Value and Results
29.1. SIX SIGMA BACKGROUND29.2. SIX SIGMA AS A PHILOSOPHY AND A PRACTICE29.2.1. Philosophy29.2.2. Practice29.3. BENEFITS OF SIX SIGMA29.4. BARRIERS TO IMPLEMENTING SIX SIGMA29.5. SIX SIGMA TECHNIQUES29.6. SIX SIGMA AND THE ISPI HPT MODEL29.7. A SIX SIGMA TOOLBOX FOR THE HPT PRACTITIONER29.7.1. Tool: Benchmarking29.7.2. Tool: Critical to Quality29.7.3. Tool: Design of Experiments29.7.4. Tool: Fault Tree Analysis29.7.5. Tool: Failure Modes and Effects Analysis29.7.6. Tool: Multi-Generational (Product) Plan29.7.7. Tool: Flowcharting29.7.8. Tool: Process Mapping29.7.9. Tool: Modeling and Simulations29.7.10. Tool: Project Management29.7.11. Tool: Quality Functional Deployment29.7.12. Tool: Statistical Analysis29.7.13. Tool: Structure-Tree Diagram29.7.14. Tool: TRIZ29.7.15. Tool: Voice of the Customer29.7.16. Tool: Verification-Validation Plan29.7.17. A Final "Tool": General Guide to Selecting and Using Tools29.8. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES29.9. THE IMPACT OF CULTURE ON SIX SIGMA IMPLEMENTATION29.9.1. Culture and the Pyramid of Quality29.9.2. Culture-Oriented Six Sigma Application from the Health Care Field29.10. INTEGRATING SIX SIGMA AND HPT29.10.1. Six Sigma29.10.2. Human Performance Technology29.10.3. The Case for Integration29.11. CONCLUSION: HPT PLUS SIX SIGMA EQUALS SUPERHIGHWAY TO PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT29.11.1. References
30. Normal Excellence: Lean Human Performance Technology and the Toyota Production System
30.1. GENESIS AND EPIGENESIS OF THE LEAN SYSTEM30.2. LEAN FOUNDATIONAL ASSUMPTIONS30.3. LEAN PRINCIPLES30.4. ELEMENTS OF LEAN HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY30.4.1. Pull and Flow30.4.2. Single-Piece Flow30.4.3. Setup Reduction or Quick Changeover30.4.4. Total Productive Maintenance30.4.5. Kanban30.4.6. Takt Time30.4.7. Leveled Production: Heijunka30.4.8. Andon30.4.9. Pokayoke30.4.10. 5S30.4.11. Visual Management30.4.12. Standardized Work30.4.13. Kaizen30.5. CONCLUSION30.5.1. References
V. PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT
31. A Commentary on Quantitative and Qualitative Methods: Myths and Realities
31.1. MYTH 1: THE PHILOSOPHICAL POSITIONS OF QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ARE INCOMPATIBLE31.2. MYTH 2: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IS MORE RIGOROUS THAN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH31.2.1. Populations and Samples31.2.2. Standards of Rigor31.3. MYTH 3: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH EMPLOYS A VARIETY OF METHODOLOGICAL APPROACHES, WHILE QUALITATIVE METHODS ARE ALL THE SAME31.4. MYTH 4: QUANTITATIVE METHODS YIELD QUANTITATIVE DATA, AND QUALITATIVE METHODS YIELD QUALITATIVE DATA31.4.1. A Case Example: Content Analysis of Medical School Reaction Evaluations31.5. CONCLUSION31.5.1. Notes31.5.2. References
32. Constructing Effective Questionnaires
32.1. THE PROCESS OF QUESTIONNAIRE CONSTRUCTION32.1.1. Review the Information Requirements Necessitating a Questionnaire32.1.2. Develop and Prioritize a List of Potential Questions That Will Satisfy the Information Requirements32.1.3. Assess Each Potential Question Carefully32.2. ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS IN CONSTRUCTING A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE32.2.1. Introduction, Instructions, and Closing Statement32.2.2. Question Construction32.2.3. Question Format and Rating Scales32.2.4. Questionnaire Layout or Format32.2.5. Data Analysis32.3. USEFUL ADMINISTRATIVE GUIDELINES FOR USING A QUESTIONNAIRE32.4. CONCLUSION32.4.1. References
33. Interviewing to Analyze and Evaluate Human Performance Technology
33.1. WHY CONDUCT INTERVIEWS?33.1.1. Advantages33.1.2. Disadvantages33.2. TYPES OF INTERVIEWS33.2.1. Structured Interviews33.2.2. Semistructured Interviews33.2.3. Unstructured Interviews33.3. METHODS OF INTERVIEWING33.3.1. Telephone Interviews33.3.2. Face-to-Face Interviews33.4. THE PROCESS OF INTERVIEWING33.4.1. Step 1. Determining the Objectives of the Interviews33.4.2. Step 2. Preparing for the Interviews33.4.3. Step 3. Carrying Out Each Interview33.4.4. Step 4. Concluding the Interviewing Process33.4.5. Step 5. Compiling and Analyzing Results33.5. SUMMARY33.5.1. Notes33.5.2. References
34. Observation Methods for Human Performance Technology
34.1. HISTORY OF THE METHOD34.2. OBSERVATION IN HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY34.3. OBSERVATION TECHNIQUES34.3.1. Unstructured and Structured Observation Methods34.3.2. Direct and Indirect Observations34.3.3. Unobtrusive Measures34.4. OBSERVATION INSTRUMENTS34.5. ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY34.6. PARTICIPANTS34.6.1. Characteristics of Participants34.6.2. Determining Which Participants Need to Be Involved34.6.3. Concerns Regarding Participant Cooperation34.7. THREATS TO OBSERVER RELIABILTY34.7.1. Effects of the Observer on the Participants34.7.2. Observer Personal Bias34.7.3. Rating Errors34.7.4. Observer Contamination or Expectancy Effects34.7.5. Observer Omission34.7.6. Observer Drift34.7.7. Reliability Decay34.8. ANALYZING OBSERVATION DATA34.8.1. Compiling Data34.8.2. Reviewing Data34.8.3. Drawing Conclusions34.9. TIPS FOR CONDUCTING SUCCESSFUL OBSERVATIONS34.10. CONCLUSION34.10.1. Notes34.10.2. References
35. Using Content Analysis in Human Performance Technology
35.1. WHAT IS CONTENT ANALYSIS?35.2. WHERE DOES CONTENT ANALYSIS FIT IN THE HPT PROCESS?35.2.1. Using Content Analysis During Performance Analysis35.2.2. Using Content Analysis During Cause Analysis35.2.3. Using Content Analysis During Intervention Selection and Design35.2.4. Using Content Analysis During Evaluation35.3. PERFORMING CONTENT ANALYSIS35.3.1. Steps in the Content-Analysis Process35.3.2. Combining Content Analysis with Other Methods of Data Collection and Analysis35.3.3. Advantages35.3.4. Limitations35.3.5. Validity and Reliability of Content Analysis35.4. EXAMPLES OF CONTENT-ANALYSIS WORK35.4.1. Case 1: Improving Safety Performance35.4.2. Case 2: Improving Scheduling in Response to Attendance Fluctuations35.4.3. Case 3: Defining Performance Objectives for Employee Training35.4.4. Case 4: Assessing the Efficacy of an HPT Model35.5. SUMMARY35.5.1. References
36. Quantitative Data Analyses
36.1. QUANTITATIVE DATA-ANALYSIS PROCESS36.2. MULTIPLE MEANINGS OF STATISTICS36.2.1. Statistical Significance Versus Practical Significance36.2.2. It's Greek to Me36.3. FUNDAMENTALS36.3.1. Basic Terms and Notations36.3.2. Measurement and Meaningfulness36.3.3. Data Types36.4. DESCRIPTIVE TECHNIQUES36.4.1. Tables and Graphs36.4.2. Descriptive Statistics Appropriate for Each Scale of Measurement36.4.3. Measures of Central Tendency36.4.4. Measures of Dispersion36.4.5. Normal Distributions36.4.6. Skewed Distributions36.4.7. Measures of Relatedness36.5. INFERENTIAL TECHNIQUES36.5.1. Which Inferential Test to Use When36.5.2. Hypothesis Testing36.5.3. Chi-Square Tests36.5.4. t-Tests36.5.5. Analysis of Variance36.5.6. Regression36.6. MULTIVARIATE TECHNIQUES36.6.1. Multiple Regression36.6.2. Canonical Correlation36.6.3. Multivariate Analysis of Variance36.6.4. Discriminant Analysis36.6.5. Factor Analysis36.7. META-ANALYSIS36.8. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS36.9. RESOURCE GUIDE36.9.1. References
37. Evidence-Based Practice and Professionalization of Human Performance Technology
37.1. A SHIFT TOWARD EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE?37.2. BARRIERS TO EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE37.2.1. Barrier 1: Where Is the Evidence?37.2.2. Barrier 2: Does This Evidence Apply to My HPT and Training Interventions?37.2.3. Barrier 3: How Can I Access Meaningful Evidence?37.2.4. Barrier 4: How Can I Influence My Clients to Make Evidence-Based Decisions?37.3. EVIDENCE-BASED PRACTICE AND THE PROFESSIONALIZATION OF HPT37.3.1. References
VI. PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY IN ACTION
38. Making the Transition from a Learning to a Performance Function
38.1. KEY CONCEPTS38.1.1. The Need Hierarchy38.1.2. Three Categories of Work38.2. STEP 1: AGREE ON A DESIRED END STATE38.2.1. Go Wrongs38.3. STEP 2: ALIGN THE PROCESS WITH THE PERFORMANCE MISSION38.3.1. Partnership Phase38.3.2. Assessment Phase38.3.3. Implementation Phase38.3.4. Measurement Phase38.3.5. Go Wrongs38.4. STEP 3: ALIGN STRUCTURE WITH THE PERFORMANCE MISSION38.4.1. Go Wrongs38.5. STEP 4: ALIGN PEOPLE WITH THE PERFORMANCE MISSION38.5.1. Go Wrongs38.6. STEP 5: START SMALL; GET SOME EARLY WINS38.7. TRANSITION STRATEGIES38.8. SUMMARY38.8.1. References
39. Using an HPT Model to Become Management's Partner
39.1. BUILDING ON THE CURRENT HPT MODEL39.1.1. A Model of Work Performance for Work Execution39.1.2. Management Owning and Using HPT Continuously39.2. THE LANGUAGE OF WORK AS AN HPT MODEL OF WORK EXECUTION39.3. PLACING THE LANGUAGE OF WORK MODEL WITHIN THE ISPI HPT MODEL39.3.1. Performance Analysis39.3.2. Defining Work as an Element of Environmental Analysis39.3.3. Defining Worker as an Element of Environmental Analysis39.3.4. Defining the Work Environment as an Element of Environmental Analysis39.3.5. Gap Analysis39.3.6. Cause Analysis and Intervention Selection39.3.7. Intervention Implementation and Change39.3.8. Evaluation39.4. CONCLUSION39.4.1. References
40. Managing Human Performance Technology Projects
40.1. PROJECT-MANAGEMENT LIFE CYCLE40.1.1. Initiating40.1.2. Planning40.1.3. Organizing40.1.4. Executing and Implementing the Plan40.1.5. Closing Out a Project40.2. BUILDING CREDIBILITY AS A MANAGER OF HPT PROJECTS40.3. CONCLUSION40.3.1. References40.3.2. Additional Resources
41. Leadership in Performance Consulting
41.1. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP41.2. THE PERFORMANCE CONSULTING GUIDE41.2.1. Preparation41.2.2. Assessment41.2.3. Diagnosis41.2.4. Prescription41.2.5. Partnering41.2.6. Reinforcement41.2.7. Follow-Up41.3. QUESTIONS: THE KEY TO OUR SUCCESS41.3.1. Situation Questions41.3.2. Problem Questions41.3.3. Implication Questions41.3.4. Need-Payoff Questions41.4. CAUSE ANALYSIS41.4.1. Using the Updated Behavior Engineering Model41.4.2. Performance Analysis Worksheet41.4.3. Leading with Questions41.5. CASE STUDY: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS41.6. CONCLUSION41.6.1. References
42. The Anatomy of Performance: A Framework for Consultants
42.1. BACKGROUND42.2. FOUR CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS FOR PERFORMANCE CONSULTING42.2.1. CSF 1: Focus on Results42.2.2. CSF 2: Understand Reality42.2.3. CSF 3: Apply the Anatomy of Performance Model42.2.4. CSF 4: Establish a Chain of Results42.3. PROJECT REDUX: THE REQUEST FOR HELP42.4. PROJECT REDUX: JOB-LEVEL ANALYSIS42.5. PROJECT REDUX: PROCESS-LEVEL ANALYSIS AND BEYOND42.6. PROJECT REDUX: RESULTS42.7. THE CONTINUING USEFULNESS OF THE AOP FRAMEWORK42.8. SUMMARY42.8.1. References
43. Certification: An Alignment Intervention
43.1. RAPID DEPLOYMENT43.2. SUCCESSION PLANNING43.3. EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL PROGRAMS43.4. THE PROCESS43.4.1. Phase 1: The Need43.4.2. Phase 2: The Goal and Measures43.4.3. Phase 3: Experts43.4.4. Phases 4 and 5: Job Task and Criticality Analyses43.4.5. Phases 6 and 7: Requirements and Standards43.4.6. Phase 8: Governance43.4.7. Phase 9: Assessment43.4.8. Phase 10: Administration43.4.9. Phase 11: Implementation43.4.10. Phase 12: Measuring and Reporting43.5. SUMMARY43.5.1. References43.5.2. Additional Resources
44. Standards and Ethics in Human Performance Technology
44.1. ETHICS AND MORALITY44.1.1. Is There One Correct Ethical Theory?44.1.2. Consequentialist Theories: Based on Consequences44.2. IS ETHICAL BEHAVIOR ABSOLUTE OR RELATIVE?44.3. ETHICAL DECISION MAKING IN AMBIGUOUS SITUATIONS44.4. SOCIAL, CORPORATE, AND PROFESSIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS44.5. STANDARDS44.5.1. Broadening the Vantage Point44.5.2. Professional Accountability and Credibility Through Standards44.6. ESTABLISHED STANDARDS44.6.1. IBSTPI Standards for Instructional Designers44.6.2. ISPI Standards for HPT Professionals44.6.3. Measurement of Standards and Certification44.6.4. Certified Performance Technologist44.7. SUMMARY44.7.1. References
45. Professional Ethics: A Matter of Duty
45.1. WRITING ABOUT ETHICS45.2. PROFESSIONAL REQUIREMENTS VERSUS PERSONAL NEEDS45.2.1. Defining the Objectives of a Profession45.2.2. Our Group: Building a Community45.3. THE CHALLENGE OF COMMON TERMS45.4. TAKING LESSONS FROM MEDICINE45.5. THE DEVELOPMENT OF OUR ETHICAL CENTER45.5.1. The Need for a Moral Center45.5.2. Trust Leads to Prosperity45.6. DIFFERING CULTURES: CORE BELIEFS45.6.1. East Asia45.6.2. China45.6.3. Korea45.6.4. Japan45.6.5. South Asia45.6.6. West-Southwest Asia45.6.7. The West45.7. COEXISTENCE OF PRINCIPLES45.7.1. Consistency of Practice45.7.2. Frameworks for Personal and Professional Ethics45.7.3. A Societal Framework45.8. DUTY45.8.1. Local Focus; Global Impact45.8.2. Accepting Our Global Duty45.9. INCREASING OUR ABILITY TO TRUST AND BE TRUSTED45.9.1. Start with the Personal45.9.2. A Story: High Tech, Low Trust45.9.3. Trust as Understanding45.9.4. Trusting an Organization45.10. BUILDING AN ETHICAL ENVIRONMENT45.10.1. Hire Ethical People45.10.2. Set Clear Expectations45.10.3. Provide the Necessary Support45.10.4. Personal Decisions: Huge Impact45.10.5. Wanted: Moral Exemplars45.11. THE GOAL? BUILDING A WORTHY LIFE45.11.1. References
46. Improving Human Performance by Employing a Top-Down Function Analysis Methodology in Navy Aircraft Design
46.1. HUMAN PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT46.2. THE NAVY'S TOP-DOWN FUNCTION ANALYSIS METHODOLOGY46.2.1. Mission Analysis Phase46.2.2. Human Performance Goals Analysis Phase46.2.3. Function Analysis Phase46.2.4. Function Allocation Phase46.2.5. Task Design and Analysis Phase46.2.6. Interface Concepts and Designs Phase46.2.7. Crew and Team Concepts and Designs Phase46.2.8. Performance, Workload, and Training Estimation Phase46.2.9. User and Requirements Review Phase46.3. SUMMARY46.3.1. References
VII. LOOKING FORWARD IN HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY
47. SWOT Analysis
47.1. SWOT ANALYSIS DEFINED47.2. ORIGINS OF THE SWOT ANALYSIS47.3. SWOT ANALYSIS AND HPT47.3.1. Performance Analysis47.3.2. Cause Analysis47.4. CONVENTIONAL APPROACHES TO SWOT ANALYSIS47.5. USING MARKET RESEARCH DATA FOR SWOT ANALYSIS47.6. USING FOCUS GROUP DATA FOR SWOT ANALYSIS47.6.1. Step 1: Identifying Stakeholders47.6.2. Step 2: Generating SWOTs47.6.3. Step 3: Categorizing SWOTs47.6.4. Step 4: Deliberation47.7. APPLICATIONS OF SWOT ANALYSIS47.7.1. Strategic Planning and Needs Assessment47.7.2. Evaluation of Change Initiatives47.8. SWOT ANALYSIS CRITIQUES AND ADVANCEMENTS47.9. ORGANIZATIONAL CONTROL OVER SWOTS47.10. COSTS AND BENEFITS OF SWOTS TO AN ORGANIZATION47.11. PLOTTING IE2 DATA47.12. USING IE2 DATA TO INFORM DECISION MAKING47.12.1. Monitor47.12.2. Reduce Threats and Maintain Opportunities47.12.3. Extinguish Weaknesses and Improve Strengths47.13. CONCLUSION47.13.1. References
48. Sustainable Development and Human Performance Technology
48.1. SUSTAINABILITY DEFINED48.1.1. Economic Dimension48.1.2. Environmental Dimension48.1.3. Social Dimension48.2. WHY ORGANIZATIONS ARE CONCERNED WITH SUSTAINABILITY48.3. SUSTAINABLE DESIGN IN ACTION: FORD MOTOR COMPANY48.4. SUSTAINABILITY AND HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY48.4.1. Groundwork in Our Field48.4.2. Role of Human Performance Technology Processes and Practices48.5. PLANNING TOOLS48.6. IMPLEMENTATION48.7. CONCLUSION48.7.1. References
49. Rapid Reflection Throughout the Performance-Improvement Process
49.1. FOUNDATIONS OF REFLECTION49.2. THE RAPID REFLECTION MODEL49.2.1. Between Phases, of the HPT Process: Reflection-on-Action and Reflection-for-Action49.2.2. Factors Affecting Reflection49.2.3. Model Summary49.3. IMPLEMENTING THE RAPID REFLECTION PROCESS49.3.1. Leveraging the Role of the Human Performance Professional49.3.2. Enhancing Work Environment Conditions to Support Reflection49.3.3. Tools, Techniques, and Templates49.4. CHALLENGES AND SUCCESS STRATEGIES FOR RAPID REFLECTION49.5. RAPID REFLECTION EXAMPLE49.6. OPPORTUNITIES TO INCREASE THE USE OF THE RAPID REFLECTION MODEL49.7. RESOURCES49.7.1. References
50. Appreciative Inquiry: Unraveling the Mystery of Accentuating the Positive
50.1. APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY DEFINED50.2. THE FOUNDERS50.3. THE APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY APPROACH: THE 4-D CYCLE50.3.1. Discovery50.3.2. Dream50.3.3. Design50.3.4. Destiny50.4. THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE HPT MODEL AND THE APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY APPROACH50.4.1. AI Approach: Affirmative Topic Choice50.4.2. The HPT Model: Performance Analysis and Cause Analysis50.4.3. AI Versus the HPT Model50.5. TRADITIONAL PERFORMANCE SOLUTIONS50.5.1. AI Versus Motivational Systems50.5.2. AI Versus Incentive Systems50.5.3. AI Versus Feedback Systems50.5.4. The Selection of AI Versus Traditional Solutions50.6. LEADING AI50.7. AI AT WORK50.8. LARGE-SCALE CHANGE50.9. CHALLENGES OF AI50.10. CONCLUSION50.10.1. Note50.10.2. References
51. Comprehensive Performance Evaluation: Using Logic Models to Develop a Theory-Based Approach for Evaluation of Human Performance Technology Interventions
51.1. THE LAWFULNESS OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE51.2. CURRENT EVALUATION MODELS IN HPT LITERATURE51.2.1. Strengths of Level-Based Evaluation51.2.2. Limitations of Level-Based Evaluation51.3. CURRENT MODELS FROM PROGRAM EVALUATION51.3.1. Theory-Based Evaluation51.3.2. Logic Modeling for Program Evaluation51.4. COMPARING LEVEL-BASED AND THEORY-BASED EVALUATION MODELS51.5. AN APPROACH TO COMPREHENSIVE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION51.5.1. Theoretical Framework for Comprehensive Performance Evaluation51.5.2. Logic Model for Comprehensive Performance Evaluation51.5.3. Method for Comprehensive Performance Evaluation51.6. EXAMPLES OF COMPREHENSIVE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION51.6.1. CPE Logic Model for NTCP51.6.2. Program-as-Intended Compared with Program-as-Implemented51.7. CONCLUSIONS51.7.1. Strengths of Comprehensive Performance Evaluation51.7.2. Limitations of Comprehensive Performance Evaluation51.7.3. Ideas for Further Development of Comprehensive Program Evaluation51.7.4. References
52. Aligning the Human Performance System
52.1. EVOLUTION OF UNDERSTANDING52.1.1. Early Models52.1.2. Joining the Touchstones52.1.3. Practical Analytical Tools52.1.4. Three Levels of Analysis52.1.5. Organizational Alignment52.2. FULLY INTEGRATED FRAMEWORK52.2.1. Systems Analysis52.2.2. Organizational Alignment52.3. CONCLUSION52.3.1. References52.3.2. Additional Resources
53. Systems, Measures, and Workers: Producing and Obscuring the System and Making Systemic Performance Improvement Difficult
53.1. MANUFACTURING KNOWLEDGE53.2. MANUFACTURING OFFICIAL IGNORANCE53.2.1. Getting Performance, Obscuring Gaps, and Impeding Improvement53.3. SETTING THE STAGE: HOW CALL CENTERS MANUFACTURE KNOWLEDGE AND PERMIT GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE53.4. TALES FROM THE FIELD: OBSCURING VARIANCE FROM MANAGEMENT AND HELPING OR HURTING ONESELF IN THE PROCESS53.4.1. Quantity Is More Important Than Quality53.4.2. "Maybe This Isn't the Right Place For You . .."53.4.3. Whose Value Is It?53.4.4. Outstanding Customer Service That Violates Company Policy: Playing Both Sides of the Fence53.5. CONCLUSION53.5.1. The Doings of Doings: Obscuring Problems from the Organization's View53.5.2. Avoiding Jumping to Solutions53.5.3. Don't We Already Know How to Handle This?53.6. EPILOGUE53.6.1. How Do I Value Thee?53.6.2. References
54. Hidden Order of Human Performance Technology: Chaos and Complexity
54.1. INTRODUCTION54.2. THE PROBLEM54.3. THE SOLUTION54.4. THE EXISTING SYSTEM54.5. THE HPT PROCESS54.6. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF CHAOS AND COMPLEXITY STUDY54.7. CHARACTERISTICS OF CHAOTIC SYSTEMS54.7.1. Nonlinear Dynamic Systems54.7.2. Phase Space54.7.3. Bifurcation54.7.4. Attractors54.7.5. Fractals54.7.6. Complex Adaptive Systems54.7.7. Networks54.7.8. Network Theory54.8. COMPANY ABC CASE STUDY54.8.1. Context54.8.2. Current Opportunities and Threats for Company ABC54.8.3. Statement of the HPI Problem54.8.4. Root Cause Analysis54.8.5. Performance-Improvement Goal54.8.6. Proposed Interventions and Considerations54.8.7. Summary of Case Study54.8.8. Results54.9. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INCORPORATING CHAOS AND COMPLEXITY INTO THE FUTURE OF HPT54.9.1. Embrace Complexity During the Analysis Phase of Projects and Beyond54.9.2. Identify and Make Use of Powerful Nodes54.9.3. Do Not Be Afraid to Make Concurrent Changes54.9.4. Build in Feedback Loops54.9.5. Plan for Immediate Adjustments During Implementation54.10. CONCLUSION54.10.1. References
55. Quantulumcunque Concerning the Future Development of Performance Technology
55.1. PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY WILL START QUESTIONING THE PREMISES BEHIND THE CURRENT PT MODELS55.2. HAVING CHALLENGED ITS OWN PREMISES, PT WILL EMBRACE OTHER WAYS OF CONCEPTUALIZING REALITY AND INTEGRATE THEM INTO ITS BODY OF KNOWLEDGE55.3. PT WILL GIVE UP THE CLAIM TO BEING A TECHNOLOGY AND ACCORDINGLY LABEL ITSELF DIFFERENTLY55.4. PT WILL BECOME MORE SERIOUS CONCERNING THE CLAIM OF BEING SYSTEMIC, AND THIS WILL LEAD TO A MORE COMPREHENSIVE SET OF METHODS TO ANALYZE SYSTEMS55.5. PT WILL OPEN TOWARD SECOND-ORDER CYBERNETICS55.6. SYSTEMS THEORY IN THE FUTURE WILL DEVELOP A NEW FOCUS TO ANSWER THE QUESTION "WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL QUALITIES OF A SYSTEM?"55.7. PT NEEDS TO DEVELOP A MORE COMPREHENSIVE FRAMEWORK HOLDING TOGETHER DIFFERENT MODELS AND APPROACHES CONCERNING PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT55.7.1. References
ABOUT THE EDITOR
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Content preview from Handbook of Human Performance Technology: Principles, Practices, and Potential, Third Edition

Chapter 32. Constructing Effective Questionnaires

Sung Heum Lee

Written questionnaires are popular and versatile in the analysis and evaluation of performance-improvement initiatives. They are instruments that present information to a respondent in writing or through the use of pictures, then require a written response such as a check, a circle, a word, a sentence, or several sentences.

Questionnaires can collect data by (1) asking people questions or (2) asking them to agree or disagree with statements representing different points of view (Babbie, 2001). As a diagnostic tool, questionnaires are used frequently for needs assessment, training-program evaluations, and many other purposes in HRD practice (Hayes, 1992; Maher and Kur, 1983; Witkin and ...

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Chapter 32. Constructing Effective Questionnaires

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