Innovation in Environmental Leadership

5    Eco-Leadership, Complexity Science, and 21st-Century Organizations

A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis

D. Adam Cletzer, Eric K. Kaufman

Introduction

Throughout the 20th century, the traditional approach to leadership was based on “machine metaphors and machine-like assumptions” (Allen et al, 1999, p. 67; Rost, 1997). Leadership was seen as derived from position, vested in an individual, top-down in nature, and “driven by power for the purpose of control” (Allen et al., 1999, p. 67). The leader and his or her actions were viewed as “more critical than those of any other member of the group” (Wielkiewicz, 2000, p. 335). Those individuals within an organization who were “most competent and loyal” were appointed to leadership positions and ...