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Light and Optics

Name: Light and Optics
Author: Abdul Al-Azzawi
ISBN: 9781351838146

by Abdul Al-Azzawi

October 2018

Beginner to intermediate

412 pages

12h 18m

English

CRC Press

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Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 The Nature of Light
1.1 Introduction1.2 The Evolution of Light Theory1.3 Measurements of the Speed of Light1.3.1 Galileo’s Attempts1.3.2 Roemer’s Method1.3.3 Fizeau’s Method1.3.4 Michelson’s Measurements 1.3.5 Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Waves Method1.4 Light Sources1.5 The Electromagnetic Spectrum1.6 Types of Electromagnetic Waves1.6.1 Radiofrequency Waves1.6.2 Microwaves1.6.3 Infrared Waves1.6.4 Visible Light1.6.5 Ultraviolet Light1.6.6 X-Rays 1.6.7 Gamma Rays1.7 Properties of Light1.7.1 Absorption1.7.2 Transmission1.7.3 Reflection 1.7.4 Refraction 1.7.5 Interference1.7.6 Diffraction1.7.7 PolarizationFurther Reading
Chapter 2 Light and Shadows
2.1 Introduction2.2 Shadows2.3 Solar Eclipse2.4 Lunar Eclipse2.5 Applications of Shadows2.6 Experimental Work2.6.1 Technique and Apparatus2.6.2 Procedure 2.6.3 Safety Procedures2.6.4 Apparatus Set-Up2.6.5 Data Collection2.6.6 Calculations and Analysis 2.6.7 Results and Discussions2.6.8 Conclusion 2.6.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work2.7 List of References2.8 AppendicesFurther Reading
Chapter 3 Thermal Radiation
3.1 Introduction3.2 Thermal Radiation3.3 Light and Energy3.4 Solar Radiation Energy3.5 Classification of Solar Collectors3.6 Flat-Plate Collectors3.7 Solar Heating Systems3.7.1 Solar Air Heating Systems3.7.2 Solar Water Heating Systems3.8 Hot Water and Steam Generation Systems3.9 Vapour Absorption Refrigeration/Air Conditioning Systems3.10 Photovoltaic Systems3.11 Experimental Work3.11.1 Solar Radiation Measurements3.11.2 Technique and Apparatus3.11.3 Procedure 3.11.4 Safety Procedure3.11.5 Apparatus Set-Up3.11.6 Data Collection3.11.7 Calculations and Analysis 3.11.8 Results and Discussions3.11.9 Conclusion 3.11.10 Suggestions for Future Lab Work3.12 List of References3.13 Appendices3.14 Weather StationFurther Reading
Chapter 4 Light Production
4.1 Introduction4.2 Spontaneous Light Emission4.3 Stimulated Light Emission4.4 Light Production by Different Energy Sources4.4.1 Heat Energy 4.4.2 Electrical Discharge4.4.3 Electrical Current4.4.4 Absorption of Light 4.4.5 Chemical Reaction4.4.6 Biological Reactions4.4.7 Nuclear Radiation4.4.8 Electrical Current4.4.8.1 Incandescent Light Lamps4.4.8.2 Tungsten Halogen Lamps4.4.8.3 Fluorescent Light Lamps4.4.8.4 Black Lights4.4.8.5 Phosphorescent Materials 4.4.8.6 High-Pressure Mercury Discharge Lamps 4.4.8.7 Metal Halide Discharge Lamps4.4.8.8 Sodium Lamps4.4.8.9 Energy Efficient Light Bulbs4.4.8.10 Lasers4.5 Experimental Work4.5.1 Technique and Apparatus4.5.2 Procedure 4.5.3 Safety Procedure4.5.4 Apparatus Set-Up4.5.4.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light Sources4.5.4.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser Diode4.5.5 Data Collection4.5.5.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light Sources4.5.5.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser Diode4.5.6 Calculations and Analysis 4.5.6.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light Sources4.5.6.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser Diode4.5.7 Results and Discussions4.5.7.1 Light Emission from Five Different Light Sources 4.5.7.2 Light Emission from an LED and Laser Diode 4.5.8 Conclusion 4.5.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work4.6 List of References4.7 AppendicesFurther Reading
Chapter 5 Light Intensity
5.1 Introduction5.2 Light Intensity5.3 Luminous Flux5.4 Luminous Intensity5.5 Illumination5.6 Experimental Work5.6.1 Technique and Apparatus5.6.2 Procedure 5.6.3 Safety Procedure5.6.4 Apparatus Set-Up5.6.4.1 Light Intensity From Five Different Light Sources5.6.4.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat Surface5.6.5 Data Collection5.6.5.1 Light Intensity from Five Different Light Sources5.6.5.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat Surface5.6.6 Calculations and Analysis 5.6.6.1 Light Intensity from Five Different Light Sources5.6.6.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat Surface5.6.7 Results and Discussions5.6.7.1 Light Intensity from Five Different Light Sources5.6.7.2 Distribution of Light Intensity on a Flat Surface5.6.8 Conclusion5.6.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work5.7 List of References5.8 AppendicesFurther Reading

Chapter 6 Light and Colour
6.1 Introduction6.2 Colours6.3 Mixing Light Colours6.3.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing6.3.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing6.4 The Colour Triangle6.5 The C.I.E. Chromaticity Diagram6.6 Colour Televisions6.7 Spectral Transmittance Curves6.8 Colour Temperature6.9 Newton’s Colour Wheel6.10 Black and White Colour Strip Intersection Wheel6.11 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel6.12 Experimental Work6.12.1 Technique and Apparatus6.12.2 Procedure 6.12.3 Safety Procedure6.12.4 Apparatus Set-Up6.12.4.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing 6.12.4.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing6.12.4.3 Newton’s Colour Wheel6.12.4.4 Black and White Colour Strip Intersection Wheel6.12.4.5 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel6.12.5 Data Collection6.12.5.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing 6.12.5.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing6.12.5.3 Newton’s Colour Wheel6.12.5.4 Black and White Colour Strip Intersection Wheel6.12.5.5 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel6.12.6 Calculations and Analysis 6.12.7 Results and Discussions6.12.7.1 Additive Method of Colour Mixing 6.12.7.2 Subtractive Method of Colour Mixing 6.12.7.3 Newton’s Colour Wheel 6.12.7.4 Black and White Colour Strip Intersection Wheel6.12.7.5 Black and White Colour Strip Wheel6.12.8 Conclusion 6.12.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work6.13 List of References6.14 AppendicesFurther Reading
Chapter 7 Laws of Light
7.1 Introduction7.2 Law of Reflection7.2.1 Fresnel Reflection7.2.2 Back Reflection7.3 Law of Refraction7.3.1 Critical Angle and Total Internal Reflection7.4 Experimental Work7.4.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer 7.4.1.1 Law of Refraction at Air–Water Interface 7.4.1.2 Critical Angle at Water–Air Interface7.4.1.3 Total Internal Reflection at Water–Air Interface 7.4.2 Technique and Apparatus7.4.3 Procedure7.4.4 Safety Procedure7.4.5 Apparatus Set-Up7.4.5.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer7.4.5.2 Law of Refraction at Air–Water Interface 7.4.5.3 Critical Angle at Water–Air Interface7.4.5.4 Total Internal Reflection at Water–Air Interface 7.4.6 Data Collection7.4.6.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer7.4.6.2 Law of Refraction at Air–Water Interface 7.4.6.3 Critical Angle at Water–Air Interface7.4.6.4 Total Internal Reflection at Water–Air Interface 7.4.7 Calculations and Analysis7.4.7.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer7.4.7.2 Law of Refraction at Air–Water Interface7.4.7.3 Critical Angle at Water–Air Interface7.4.7.4 Total Internal Reflection at Water–Air Interface 7.4.8 Results and Discussions7.4.8.1 Laser Light Passes through a Water Layer7.4.8.2 Law of Refraction at Air–Water Interface 7.4.8.3 Critical Angle at Water–Air Interface7.4.8.4 Total Internal Reflection at Water–Air Interface 7.4.9 Conclusion7.4.10 Suggestions for Future Lab Work 7.4.11 List of References7.4.12 Appendices Further Reading
Chapter 8 Plane Mirrors
8.1 Introduction8.2 The Reflection of Light8.2.1 An Object Placed in Front of a Plane Mirror 8.2.2 Multiple Images Formed by an Object Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles8.2.3 Tracing a Laser beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle8.2.4 Tracing a Laser beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles8.2.5 Tracing a Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle8.2.6 Tracing a Laser Beam Passing between Three Plane Mirrors at Different Angles8.2.7 Tracing a Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating Mirror8.3 Experimental Work8.3.1 Technique and Apparatus8.3.2 Procedure 8.3.3 Safety Procedure8.3.4 Apparatus Setup8.3.4.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane Mirror 8.3.4.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles 8.3.4.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle8.3.4.4 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles 8.3.4.5 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle 8.3.4.6 A Beam Source Passing between Three Plane Mirrors at Different Angles 8.3.4.7 A Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating Mirror8.3.5 Data Collection8.3.5.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane Mirror 8.3.5.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles 8.3.5.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle8.3.5.4 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles 8.3.5.5 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle 8.3.5.6 A Laser Beam Passing between Three Plane Mirrors at Different Angles 8.3.5.7 A Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating Mirror8.3.6 Calculations and Analysis 8.3.6.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane Mirror 8.3.6.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles8.3.6.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle8.3.6.4 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles 8.3.6.5 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Obtuse Angle 8.3.6.6 A Laser Beam Passing between Three Plane Mirrors at Different Angles 8.3.6.7 A Laser Beam Incident on a Rotating Mirror8.3.7 Results and Discussions8.3.7.1 A Candle Placed in Front of a Fixed Plane Mirror8.3.7.2 A Candle Placed between Two Plane Mirrors at Right Angles8.3.7.3 A Laser Beam Passing between Two Plane Mirrors at an Acute Angle 8.3.8 Conclusion 8.3.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work8.4 List of References8.5 AppendicesFurther Reading
Chapter 9 Spherical Mirrors
9.1 Introduction9.2 Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors9.2.1 Concave Mirrors9.2.2 The Mirror Equation9.2.3 Convex Mirrors9.2.4 Sign Convention for Spherical Mirrors9.3 Spherical Aberration9.3.1 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors9.4 Experimental Work9.4.1 Technique and Apparatus9.4.2 Procedure 9.4.3 Safety Procedure9.4.4 Apparatus Setup9.4.4.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors9.4.4.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors9.4.4.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors 9.4.5 Data Collection9.4.5.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors9.4.5.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors9.4.5.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors 9.4.6 Calculations and Analysis 9.4.6.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors9.4.6.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors9.4.6.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors 9.4.7 Results and Discussions9.4.7.1 Formation of Images by Concave Mirrors 9.4.7.2 Formation of Images by Convex Mirrors9.4.7.3 Formation of Image by Two Spherical Concave Mirrors9.4.8 Conclusion 9.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work9.5 List of References9.6 AppendixFurther Reading
Chapter 10 Lenses
10.1 Introduction10.2 Types of Lenses10.2.1 Converging and Diverging Lenses10.2.2 GRIN Lenses 10.2.3 Ball Lenses10.2.4 Fresnel Lenses 10.2.5 Liquid Lenses10.3 Graphical Method to Locate an Image Formed by Converging and Diverging Lenses10.4 Image Formation by Converging Lenses10.5 The Lens Equation10.6 Magnification of a Thin Lens10.7 The Lensmaker’s Equation10.8 Combination of Thin Lenses10.9 Lens Aberrations10.9.1 Spherical Aberration10.9.2 Chromatic Aberration10.9.3 Astigmatism 10.10 Lens Polishing Technology10.11 Experimental Work10.11.1 Technique and Apparatus10.11.2 Procedure 10.11.3 Safety Procedure10.11.4 Apparatus Set-Up10.11.4.1 Image Formed by a Lens10.11.4.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two Lenses 10.11.5 Data Collection10.11.5.1 Image Formed by a Lens10.11.5.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two Lenses 10.11.6 Calculations and Analysis 10.11.6.1 Image Formed by a Lens10.11.6.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two Lenses 10.11.7 Results and Discussions10.11.7.1 Image Formed by a Lens10.11.7.2 Image Formed by a Combination of Two Lenses10.11.8 Conclusion 10.11.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work10.12 List of References10.13 AppendicesFurther Reading
Chapter 11 Prisms
11.1 Introduction11.2 Prisms11.3 Prism Types11.3.1 Right Angle Prisms11.3.2 Equilateral Prisms11.3.3 Dove Prisms11.3.4 Roof Prisms 11.3.5 Penta Prisms11.3.6 Double Porro Prisms11.3.7 Leman–Springer Prisms11.3.8 Wedge Prisms11.3.9 Prisms with Special Applications11.3.10 Other Types of Prisms11.4 Prisms in Different Combinations11.5 Light Beam Passing through a Prism11.6 Factors Governing Dispersion of Light by a Prism11.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism11.8 Mixing Spectrum Colours Using a Glass Rod and Tube11.9 Experimental Work11.9.1 Technique and Apparatus11.9.2 Procedure 11.9.3 Safety Procedure11.9.4 Apparatus Set-Up11.9.5 Data Collection11.9.5.1 Laser Beam Passing through a Right Angle Prism 11.9.5.2 Laser Beam Passing through a Dove Prism11.9.5.3 Laser Beam Passing through a Porro Prism11.9.5.4 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism11.9.5.5 Laser Beam Passing through Prism Combination 11.9.5.6 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism to Calculate the Index of Refraction 11.9.5.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism 11.9.5.8 Mixing the Spectrum Colours Using a Glass Rod and Tube11.9.6 Calculations and Analysis 11.9.6.1 Laser Beam Passing through a Right Angle Prism 11.9.6.2 Laser Beam Passing through a Dove Prism11.9.6.3 Laser Beam Passing through a Porro Prism11.9.6.4 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism11.9.6.5 Laser Beam Passing through Prism Combination 11.9.6.6 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism to Calculate the Index of Refraction 11.9.6.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism 11.9.6.8 Mixing the Spectrum Colours Using a Glass Rod and Tube11.9.7 Results and Discussions11.9.7.1 Laser Beam Passing through a Right Angle Prism11.9.7.2 Laser Beam Passing through a Dove Prism 11.9.7.3 Laser Beam Passing through a Porro Prism11.9.7.4 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism11.9.7.5 Laser Beam Passing through Prism Combination11.9.7.6 Laser Beam Passing through a Prism to Calculate the Index of Refraction 11.9.7.7 Dispersion of White Light by a Prism 11.9.7.8 Mixing the Spectrum Colours Using a Glass Rod and Tube11.9.8 Conclusion 11.9.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work11.10 List of References11.11 AppendicesFurther Reading
Chapter 12 Beamsplitters
12.1 Introduction12.2 Beamsplitters12.3 Beamsplitter Types12.3.1 Standard Cube Beamsplitters12.3.2 Polarizing Cube Beamsplitters12.3.3 Rectangular Polarizing Beamsplitters 12.3.4 Lateral Displacement Polarizing Beamsplitters12.3.5 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitters12.3.6 Polka-Dot Beamsplitters12.3.7 Elliptical Plate Beamsplitters12.3.8 Mirror-Type Beamsplitters12.3.9 Pellicle Beamsplitters12.3.10 Visible and Near Infrared Region Plate Beamsplitters12.3.11 Quartz Beamsplitters 12.3.12 Dichroic Plate Beamsplliters 12.3.13 Other Types of Beamsplitters12.4 Experimental Work12.4.1 Technique and Apparatus12.4.2 Procedure 12.4.3 Safety Procedure12.4.4 Apparatus Set-Up12.4.4.1 Cube Beamsplitter12.4.4.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter 12.4.4.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter 12.4.5 Data Collection12.4.5.1 Cube Beamsplitter12.4.5.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter 12.4.5.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter 12.4.6 Calculations and Analysis 12.4.6.1 Cube Beamsplitter12.4.6.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter 12.4.6.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter 12.4.7 Results and Discussions12.4.7.1 Cube Beamsplitter12.4.7.2 Rectangular Beamsplitter12.4.7.3 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter 12.4.8 Conclusion 12.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work12.5 List of References12.6 AppendicesFurther Reading
Chapter 13 Light Passing through Optical Components
13.1 Introduction13.2 Experimental Work13.2.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit13.2.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Laser Set13.2.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube13.2.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar 13.2.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle 13.2.6 Technique and Apparatus13.2.7 Procedure 13.2.8 Safety Procedure13.2.9 Apparatus Set-Up13.2.9.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit13.2.9.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Laser Set13.2.9.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube 13.2.9.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar13.2.9.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle13.2.10 Data Collection13.2.10.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit13.2.10.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Laser Set13.2.10.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube 13.2.10.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar13.2.10.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle13.2.11 Calculations and Analysis 13.2.11.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit13.2.11.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Laser Set13.2.11.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube 13.2.11.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar13.2.11.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle13.2.12 Results and Discussions13.2.12.1 Light Passing through Optical Components from the Laser Optics Kit13.2.12.2 Laser Light Passing through Optical Components from the Ray Optics Laser Set13.2.12.3 Light Passing through a Glass Rod and Tube 13.2.12.4 Light Passing through a Spiral Bar13.2.12.5 Light Passing through a Fibre-Optic Cable Bundle13.2.13 Conclusion 13.2.14 Suggestions for Future Lab Work13.3 List of References13.4 AppendixFurther Reading
Chapter 14 Optical Instruments for Viewing Applications
14.1 Introduction14.2 Optical Instruments14.3 The Camera14.4 The Eye14.4.1 Defects of Vision14.4.2 Colour Vision14.5 The Magnifying Glass14.6 The Compound Microscope14.7 Advanced Microscopes14.8 The Telescope14.8.1 The Refracting Telescope14.8.2 Terrestrial Telescopes14.8.3 The Reflecting Telescope14.8.4 Famous Telescopes14.8.5 Research Telescopes14.9 The Binoculars14.10 The Slide Projector14.11 The Overhead Projector14.12 The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) Projector14.13 The Light Box14.14 Experimental Work14.14.1 Technique and Apparatus14.14.2 Procedure 14.14.3 Safety Procedure14.14.4 Apparatus Set-Up14.14.4.1 A Slide Projector: Operate, Observe Image Formation, Disassemble to Examine the Functionality of the Optical Components, and Reassemble14.14.5 Data Collection14.14.6 Calculations and Analysis 14.14.7 Results and Discussions14.14.7.1 A Slide Projector: Operate, Observe Image Formation, Disassemble to Examine the Functionality of the Optical Components, and Reassemble 14.14.8 Conclusion 14.14.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work14.15 List of References14.16 AppendicesFurther Reading
Chapter 15 Polarization of Light
15.1 Introduction15.2 Polarization of Light15.3 Forms of Polarization of Light15.4 Occurrence of Polarization15.4.1 Polarization by Reflection 15.4.2 Polarization by Double Refraction15.4.3 Polarization by Scattering 15.4.4 Polarization by Selective Absorption15.5 Polarizing Materials15.6 Polarizing Optical Components15.7 The Law of Malus15.8 Optical Activity15.9 Photoelasticity15.10 Liquid Crystal Display15.11 Polarization Maintaining Fibres15.12 Polarization Loss15.13 Experimental Work15.13.1 Technique and Apparatus15.13.2 Procedure 15.13.3 Safety Procedure15.13.4 Apparatus Set-Up15.13.4.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing Cube Beamsplitter15.13.4.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter 15.13.4.3 Light Passing through a Calcite Material15.13.4.4 The Law of Malus15.13.5 Data Collection15.13.5.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing Cube Beamsplitter15.13.5.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter 15.13.5.3 Light Passing through a Calcite Material15.13.5.4 The Law of Malus15.13.6 Calculations and Analysis 15.13.6.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing Cube Beamsplitter15.13.6.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter Cube 15.13.6.3 Light Passing through a Calcite Material15.13.6.4 The Law of Malus15.13.7 Results and Discussions15.13.7.1 Light Passing through a Polarizing Cube Beamsplitter 15.13.7.2 Glan Thompson Polarizing Beamsplitter 15.13.7.3 Light Passing through a Calcite Material15.13.7.4 The Law of Malus15.13.8 Conclusion 15.13.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work15.14 List of References15.15 AppendicesFurther Reading
Chapter 16 Optical Materials
16.1 Introduction16.2 Classes of Materials16.2.1 Glass16.2.2 Dopants16.2.3 Co-Dopants16.2.4 Polymers in Photonics 16.3 Applications16.3.1 Reflectors 16.3.2 Lenses16.3.3 Fibre Optics 16.3.4 Mechanical Components 16.4 Experimental Work16.4.1 Technique and Apparatus16.4.2 Procedure 16.4.3 Safety Procedure16.4.4 Apparatus Set-Up16.4.4.1 Set Up of Interferometer16.4.5 Data Collection16.4.6 Calculations and Analysis 16.4.7 Results and Discussions16.4.8 Conclusion 16.4.9 Suggestions for Future Lab Work16.5 List of References16.6 AppendixFurther Reading
Chapter 17 Photonics Laboratory Safety
17.1 Introduction17.2 Electrical Safety17.2.1 Fuses/Circuit Breakers 17.2.2 Switches ON/OFF17.2.3 Plugs 17.2.4 Wall Outlets 17.2.5 Cords17.2.6 Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters17.3 Light Sources17.4 Devices and Equipment17.5 Audio–Visual and Computer Peripherals17.6 Handling of Fibre Optic Cables17.7 Epoxy Adhesives and Sealants17.8 Cleaning Optical Components17.9 Optic/Optical Fibre Devices and Systems17.10 Cleaning Chemicals17.11 Warning Labels17.12 Laser Safety17.13 Laser Safety Tips17.14 Indoor Air Quality17.15 Other ConsiderationsFurther Reading
Appendix A: Details of the Devices, Components, Tools, and Parts
Appendix B: International System of Units (SI)
Appendix C: Lighting Lamps
Glossary
Index

Content preview from Light and Optics

5	Light Intensity

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The light from a fire or flame will propagate spherically outwards from the source. In general, the apparent intensity of the light will vary inversely with the distance from the observer to the source. The earliest unit for measuring light, the foot-candle, was based on the amount of light being emitted from a single candle at a distance of one foot. The more candles lit, the brighter the radiant light.

Since light waves propagate spherically from a candle, the number of photons per unit area will vary based on the distance to the candle. The measurement of light intensity is called luminous flux.

Experimental ...

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Light and Optics

by Abdul Al-Azzawi

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