book

Photovoltaic Laboratory

Name: Photovoltaic Laboratory
Author: Peter T. Parrish
ISBN: 9781498782517

by Peter T. Parrish

October 2018

Intermediate to advanced

390 pages

9h 3m

English

CRC Press

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Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
How to Use This Textbook
The Author
Chapter 1 - Safety
1.1 Introduction1.2 Student Learning Objectives1.3 Working in Extreme Weather Conditions1.3.1 The Hot, Dry Climate1.3.2 The Cold Climate1.4 Understanding Heat Stress1.4.1 Heat Exhaustion—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses1.4.2 Heat Stroke—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses1.4.3 Dehydration—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses1.4.4 Hypothermia—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses1.4.5 Frostbite—Symptoms and Appropriate Responses1.4.6 Preventing Heat or Cold Stress1.5 General Safety Training1.6 Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)1.6.1 Eye Protection and Gloves1.6.2 Protective Helmets (a/k/a Hard Hats)1.6.3 Aprons1.6.4 Footwear1.7 Working at Heights1.7.1 Safety Barriers1.7.2 Guardrail Systems1.7.3 Safety Netting1.7.4 Personal Fall Arrest: Body Harnesses1.7.5 Rescue Plan1.7.6 Ladders and Ladder Safety1.8 Electrical Safety1.8.1 Overhead Power Lines1.8.2 Operating Electrical Equipment1.9 Moving and Carrying Heavy Objects1.10 Roofs and Attics1.11 Lockout/Tagout1.12 Safety PostersNotes
Chapter 2 - Trade Math for PV—Measurements, Units, and Calculations
2.1 Introduction2.2 Student Learning Objectives2.3 The Decimal System of Notation2.4 Scientific Notation (Exponential Notation [Base 10])2.5 Adding, Subtracting, Multiplying, and Dividing in SN2.5.1 Multiplication and Division2.5.2 Addition and Subtraction2.5.3 Metric System and Prefixes2.5.4 Nonstandard Units of Measure2.5.4.1 The British Thermal Unit (BTU)2.5.4.2 The Kilowatt Hour (kWh)2.5.4.3 The BTU—A Diversion2.6.1 A–B Comparison2.6.2 Change of a Value (over Time)2.7 Student Exercises2.7.1 A–B Comparison2.8 Significant Digits and Precision2.10 Basic Algebra2.10.1 Ohm’s Law2.10.2 Watt’s Law2.10.3 Order of Operations2.11 Trigonometry of Right Triangles2.11.1 The Right Triangle2.11.2 The Pythagorean Theorem2.11.3 Calculations Involving the Pythagorean Theorem2.11.4 The Three Trigonometric Functions2.11.5 Evaluating the Angle θ and Inverse Trigonometric Functions2.11.6 Reciprocal Trigonometric Functions2.12 Length, Area, and Volume2.13 The Celestial Sphere2.14 Analyzing Word Problems2.15 Mastering the Use of a Calculator2.15.1 Addition and Subtraction2.15.2 Multiplication and Division2.15.3 Trigonometry
Chapter 3 - Measurements of DC and AC Electrical Circuits
3.1 Introduction3.1.1 DC Electrical Circuits3.1.2 AC Electrical Circuits3.2 Student Learning Objectives3.3 Setup3.3.1 The Calculator3.3.2 Electrical Components3.3.3 Measurement Instruments3.3.4 Other Equipment3.4 The DC Electrical Circuit—An Abstraction3.5 Basic Electrical Concepts—Analogy with Water Flow3.5.1 Charge3.5.2 Current3.5.3 Current Continuity3.5.4 Voltage3.5.5 Resistance3.6.1 Power3.6.2 Energy3.6.3 Time and Frequency3.7 Summary of Circuit Concepts3.8 Nominal Specifications3.9 DMM Measurement Accuracy3.11 Student Exercises3.11.1 Measuring the Voltage Standard3.12 Color Coding for Resistors3.13 Measuring Resistance with the DMM3.14 Measuring DC Voltage with the DMM3.14.1 Single Batteries3.14.2 Multiple Batteries—In Series and in Parallel3.15 Bench Power Supply3.16 Powering a 12 V LED3.17 Powering a 10 Ω, 50 W Resistor3.18 AC Circuit Theory3.18.1 What Is a Sinusoidal Signal?3.19 Electrical Utility Service3.20 Measuring a 120/240 VAC 200A Split-Phase Service Panel3.20.1 120 VAC Branch Circuit (L1 or L2)3.20.2 240 VAC Branch Circuit (L1 and L2)3.20.3 Measuring Current in a 120 VAC Branch CircuitNotes
Chapter 4 - The Site Survey
4.1 Introduction4.2 Student Learning Objectives4.3 Organization of This Lab4.4 Prior Activities4.4.1 Preliminary Technical Sales Proposal4.4.2 Sample Module Rows4.4.3 Determination of All Authorities Having Jurisdiction (AHJs)4.4.4 The Virtual Site Survey4.5 Resources4.6 Example of a Site Survey4.6.1 County Assessor’s Map4.6.2 Sketch of the Property Including House4.6.3 Documentation of Roof Sections4.6.4 Site Survey Document4.7 Student Exercises4.7.1 Student Site Survey4.7.1.1 Document the Roof4.7.2 Rafter/Truss and Attic Details4.7.2.1 Attic Inspection4.7.3 Main Service Panel4.7.4 Use of a Subpanel4.7.5 Locations for Other Major Components4.7.6 Grounding of Electrical Service4.7.7 Trenching4.8 Shading Analysis4.8.1 Performing a Manual Shading Analysis Using the SolarPathfinder4.8.2 Performing an Advanced Shading Analysis Using the SolarPathfinder4.8.3 Performing a Shading Analysis Using the Solmetric SunEye®4.9 SummaryNotes
Chapter 5 - Racking Systems—General Considerations
5.1 Introduction5.2 Student Learning Objectives5.3 Setup5.3.1 Portrait versus Landscape Layouts5.4 Positioning the Rails and Brackets5.4.1 The 25% and 75% Rule5.4.2 Maximum Bracket Spacing5.4.3 Standard Residential Rafter/Truss Spacing5.4.4 Constraints on Portrait Orientation5.4.5 Constraints on Landscape Orientation5.4.6 Case Study: The 60-Cell, 156 mm Square Cell PV Module5.5 Design of Layout for a Single PV Module5.6 Small Mock Roof Details5.7 Locating the Rafters5.8 Pull-Out Strength of Lag Bolts5.9 Wind Forces on Roofs5.9.1 The “Simple” Approach5.10 Student Exercises5.10.1 Model Structures5.10.1.1 Calculations Based on Simple Approach5.10.1.2 Calculations Based on Complicated Approach5.10.2 Roof-Specific Installation of BracketsNotes5A.1 Introduction5A.2 Student Learning Objectives5A.4 Setup5A.5 Tools Needed for This Lab5A.6 Student Exercises5A.6.1 Design Layout for a Single PV Module5A.7 Locating the Rafters5A.7.1 Begin Layout5A.7.2 Installing the Brackets5A.7.3 Choice of Post5A.7.4 Installing Flashing5A.7.5 Dimensioning and Attaching the Rail5A.7.6 Installing the PV ModuleAppendix 5B: Racking Systems on Flat Concrete Tile Roofs5B.1 Introduction5B.2 Student Learning Objectives5B.4 Setup5B.5 Tools Needed for This Lab5B.6 Student Exercises5B.6.1 Locating the Rafters5B.6.1.1 Begin Layout5B.6.1.2 Removing Tiles and Precision Location of Rafters5B.6.1.3 Setting the Brackets5B.6.1.4 Positioning the Rails5B.7 The PV Module

Chapter 6 - Characterization of a PV Module
6.1 Introduction6.2 Student Learning Objectives6.3 Setup6.3.1 The TiltAll Tripod6.3.2 Choice of PV Module—The Renogy RNG-100D6.4 Components and Instruments6.4.1 The Gnomon6.4.2 Digital Multimeter (DMM)6.4.3 Bead Wire Thermocouple and Black Electrician’s Tape6.4.4 Clamp-On Ammeter6.4.5 Digital Infrared Thermometer6.4.6 Irradiance Meter6.4.7 Tilt Meter6.4.8 Torpedo Level6.4.9 Thermometer6.4.10 Calculator6.5 Student Exercises6.5.1 The Measurements6.5.1.1 Measurement 1: Maximum Irradiance6.5.1.2 Measurement 2: The Gnomon and Measuring the Angle of Incidence6.5.1.3 Measurement 3: Irradiance When PV Module Is Pointing Directly at the Sun6.5.1.4 Measurement 4: Irradiance When the PV Module Is Not Pointed at the Sun6.5.1.5 Measurement 5: Module Temperature—Two Ways to Measure6.5.1.6 Measurement 6: Ambient Temperature6.5.1.7 Measurement 7: Standard Operating Conditions (SOCs) and Nominal Operating Cell Temperature6.5.1.8 Measurement 8: Voc , the Open Circuit Voltage6.5.1.9 Measurement 9: Isc, the Short Circuit Current6.5.1.10 Measurement 10: The Full I-V Characteristic6.5.1.11 Measurement 11: Maximum Power Point, Pmax6.5.2 Other Minor Dependencies
Chapter 7 - Modeling the PV Cell, Module, and Array
7.1 Preface7.1.1 The “Standard Methodology”7.1.2 Universal Constants: Cell Voltage and Cell Current Density7.1.3 Partial Shading of PV Modules and Bypass Diodes7.1.4 Overcurrent Protection in Three or More Strings7.1.5 High-Performance PV Modules7.2 Unity in the Data?7.2.1 How Many Cells in a Module?7.2.2 Commercial PV Module Electrical Characteristics7.3 Goals for This Laboratory7.4 Introduction7.5 Student Learning Objectives7.6 Simple Component Models in PSpice7.6.1 The Resistor Revisited7.6.2 The Voltage Source7.6.3 The Current Source7.6.4 The Diode7.6.5 Plotting the Diode I-V Characteristic7.7 Two-Element Model for the PV Cell7.7.1 I-V Characteristic for the PV Cell7.7.2 The Concept of Load Resistance7.7.3 Separately Displaying the Source, Diode, and External Load Currents7.7.4 Maximum Power Point (MPP)7.8 Cell Efficiency7.9 I-V and P-V Characteristics for Different Irradiance Values7.10.1 Temperature Dependence of PV Cell Characteristics—Voc7.10.2 Temperature Dependence of PV Cell Characteristics—Isc7.11 Student Exercises7.12 The PSpice Simulation Program7.13 The Spice Netlist7.13.1 Creating the Netlist Using MS Notepad7.13.2 Using MS Excel to Record and Plot Data7.14 Using the Power of PSpice7.14.1 Using the Voltage Source in Place of the Load Resistor7.14.2 The New Netlist7.15.1 Adding the Parasitic Resistances7.15.2 Library Element “cell_1.lib”7.16 The Effects of Shading at the Cell Level7.17 Optional Exercises
Chapter 8 - Lead-Acid Absorbent Glass Mat Batteries
8.1 Introduction8.2 Student Learning Objectives8.3 Overview of Lead-Acid Batteries8.4 Markets for Pb-Acid Batteries8.4.1 The Automotive Market8.4.2 Conventional Traction Market8.4.3 Energy Storage Market8.4.4 Lead Alloys8.5 Comparison with Other Battery Technologies8.6 Characterizing the Pb-Acid Battery8.6.1 Nominal Battery Voltages8.6.2 Battery Capacity8.6.3 State of Charge and Depth of Discharge8.6.4 More on Battery Capacity8.6.5 Expected Life Cycles8.6.6 Three-Stage Charging8.7 Student Exercises8.7.1 Charging the PVX-840T8.8 Discharging the PVX-840TNotes
Chapter 9 - Off-Grid PV System with DC-Only Loads
9.1 Introduction9.2 Student Learning Objectives9.3 Overall Design Philosophy9.4 The Load Profile9.5 Days of Autonomy and Battery Energy Capacity9.5.1 Measuring the Depth of Discharge9.6 PV System Rating9.7.1 Charge Controller Efficiency9.7.2 Charging/Discharging Efficiency of AGM Battery9.7.3 Depth of Discharge and Life Cycles9.8 Student Exercises9.8.1 Load Profile Calculation9.9 Days of Autonomy9.10 Total Energy Requirement9.11 Charging/Discharging Efficiency of AGM Battery9.12 Charging Efficiency of Charge Controller9.13 Required Energy Storage in Battery9.14 Required Energy Delivery by PV System9.15 PV Subsystem Simulation9.16 Document Final System Configuration9.17 Balance of System Components and Conductor Sizing9.18 Battery Current9.19 PV Circuit Conductors9.20 Electrical Schematic and System Layout9.21 Layout9.22 The Pick List9.23 Mounting the System Components9.24 Documenting the Final System9.24.1 System Certification9.24.2 Photographs9.25 System Documentation9.25.1 System Schematic9.25.2 System Layout9.25.3 System Certification Sheet9.25.4 Photograph of Integrated SystemNote
Chapter 10 - Off-Grid PV System with DC and AC Loads
10.1 Introduction10.2 Student Learning Objectives10.3 Overall Design Philosophy10.3.1 AC Loads10.3.2 DC Loads10.3.3 DC-to-DC Converters10.3.4 The Load Profile10.3.5 PV System Sizing10.3.6 Days of Autonomy10.3.7 Number of Battery Cycles10.4 System Calculations10.5 Student Exercises10.5.1 Load Profile Calculations10.5.2 Days of Autonomy10.5.3 Total Energy Requirement10.5.4 Sizing the Battery Subsystem10.5.5 Sizing the PV Module and Charge Controller10.5.6 PV Subsystem Simulation10.5.7 Document the Final System Configuration10.5.8 Electrical Schematic and System Layout10.5.9 System Layout10.5.10 Mounting System Components10.6 Documenting the Final System10.6.1 Electrical Schematic10.6.2 Physical Layout10.6.3 Certification Measurements10.6.4 Photographs10.7 Owner’s Manual
Chapter 11 - 2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with Microinverters
11.1 Introduction11.2 Student Learning Objectives11.3 Setup11.3.1 The Roof11.3.2 Racking Equipment11.3.3 Choice of PV Module11.3.4 Choice of Microinverter11.3.5 Simulation of PV Performance and Monitoring11.3.6 Personal Protective Equipment11.3.7 Materials and Tools11.4 High-Level Design11.4.1 Estimated Consumption Based on Electricity Bill History11.4.2 Estimated Consumption Based on Square Footage of Living Space11.4.3 Estimated Consumption Based on Load Profile11.4.4 System Size for This Laboratory11.5 Site Assessment11.5.1 Perform Shading Analysis11.5.2 Final PV Module Layout11.6 Roof Loading Calculations11.7 Mechanical Loading—The Live and Dead Loads11.7.1 Live Loads11.7.2 Dead Loads—PV System and Roof11.7.3 Dead Load of the Roof Material11.7.4 The Total Dead Load11.7.5 Calculation of Maximum Horizontal Span of a Roof Rafter11.8 Wind Loading11.8.1 Design Wind Pressure for the Site11.8.2 The SolarMount Code-Compliant Installation Manual 227.311.8.3 Basic Equation for Design Wind Loading for Components and Cladding11.8.3.1 Additional Information Needed11.8.4 Total Design Load (Downforce and Uplift)11.8.5 Calculating Uplift Force on Each Standoff and Comparing to Pullout Strength of Fasteners11.8.6 The Concept of Design (Safety) Margin11.9 Fire Marshal Setbacks11.10 Layout of PV System11.11 Single-Line and Four-Line Diagrams11.11.1 A Single-Line Diagram11.11.2 A Four-Line Diagram11.11.3 National Electrical Manufacturers Association11.11.4 Underwriters Laboratory11.11.5 The Difference between Four-Line and Single-Line Diagrams11.12.1 Sketch of Layout in Notebook11.12.2 Transfer Sketch to Roof11.12.3 Attach Standoffs, Flashing, Rails, and AC Cable11.12.4 Documenting the Mechanical Subsystem—Standoffs, Flashing, and Rails Inputs from Roof Details—Optional11.13.1 The First Row11.14 The Installation Map Monitoring System11.15 Installing Balance of System11.16 Lightning and Surge Protection11.17 Installing the Enphase Monitoring System11.17.1 Connecting the Gateway to Enphase Internet Site11.18 Energizing the System11.19 Activating the System11.20 Certification Testing11.21 Troubleshooting11.21.1 Post-Start-Up LED IndicationsNotes
Chapter 12 - 2.4 kW DC Grid-Tied PV System with String Inverter
12.1 Introduction12.2 Student Learning Objectives12.3 High-Level Design Requirement12.4 Setup12.5 String Sizing12.5.1 Resources for Weather Data for the Installation Site12.5.2 Checking for Maximum System Voltage12.5.3 Checking for Maximum Operating Temperature of Inverter12.5.4 Checking for Minimum Start Voltage12.6 Monitoring12.8 Modifying the Mechanical Subsystem12.9 Attic Penetration12.10 Installing Balance of System12.11 Lightning and Surge Protection12.12 Installing the TED Monitoring System12.12.1 Preparing the Main Service Panel12.12.2 Installing the MTU and Current Transformers12.12.3 Installing the Gateway12.12.4 Remote Display12.12.5 Footprints Software Setup12.13 Certification Testing12.14 Troubleshooting
Appendix I: Small Mock Roofs
Appendix II: Roll-Around Walls
Appendix III: 21 ft. by 18 ft. Roof
AIII.1 IntroductionAIII.2 Overall Description of RoofAIII.3 Sill DetailsAIII.4 WheelsAIII.5 Roof DetailsAIII.6 Semipermanent InstallationAIII.7 Live and Dead LoadsAIII.8 Wind Load Calculations

Content preview from Photovoltaic Laboratory

Appendix III: 21 ft. by 18 ft. Roof

AIII.1 Introduction

This appendix covers the specification of a roof big enough to accommodate a 1.85 kW DC PV system (10 each Mitsubishi 185 W DC modules). Later, the PC module was changed to a Renogy 240 W DC module, resulting in a 2.5 kW PV system.

The roof is outfitted with casters so that it can be brought through a high-bay, roll-up door. The modules were oriented in portrait format and the array was composed of two rows of five modules each. On the roof, there was essentially no room to maneuver around this array, as we were not able to provide a full 3 ft. access on both sides and at the top of the array. There is a Google SketchUp model for this roof included on a CD.

AIII.2 Overall Description ...

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