book

Practical Electronics for Inventors, Fourth Edition, 4th Edition

by Paul Scherz, Simon Monk

April 2016

Beginner

1072 pages

39h 7m

English

McGraw-Hill Education TAB

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2.1 Theory of Electronics2.2 Electric Current2.2.1 Currents in Perspective2.3 Voltage2.3.1 The Mechanisms of Voltage2.3.2 Definition of Volt and Generalized Power Law2.3.3 Combining Batteries2.3.4 Other Voltage Sources2.3.5 Water Analogies2.4 A Microscopic View of Conduction (for Those Who Are Interested)2.4.1 Applying a Voltage2.5 Resistance, Resistivity, Conductivity2.5.1 How the Shape of a Conductor Affects Resistance2.5.2 Resistivity and Conductivity2.6 Insulators, Conductors, and Semiconductors2.7 Heat and Power2.8 Thermal Heat Conduction and Thermal Resistance2.8.1 Importance of Heat Production2.9 Wire Gauges2.10 Grounds2.10.1 Earth Ground2.10.2 Different Types of Ground Symbols2.10.3 Loose Ends on Grounding2.11 Electric Circuits2.12 Ohm’s Law and Resistors2.12.1 Resistor Power Ratings2.12.2 Resistors in Parallel2.12.3 Resistors in Series2.12.4 Reducing a Complex Resistor Network2.12.5 Multiple Voltage Dividers2.13 Voltage and Current Sources2.14 Measuring Voltage, Current, and Resistance2.15 Combining Batteries2.16 Open and Short Circuits2.17 Kirchhoff’s Laws2.18 Superposition Theorem2.19 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorems2.19.1 Thevenin’s Theorem2.19.2 Norton’s Theorem2.20 AC Circuits2.20.1 Generating AC2.20.2 Water Analogy of AC2.20.3 Pulsating DC2.20.4 Combining Sinusoidal Sources2.20.5 AC Waveforms2.20.6 Describing an AC Waveform2.20.7 Frequency and Period2.20.8 Phase2.21 AC and Resistors, RMS Voltage, and Current2.22 Mains Power
2.23.1 Determining Capacitance2.23.2 Commercial Capacitors2.23.3 Voltage Rating and Dielectric Breakdown2.23.4 Maxwell’s Displacement Current2.23.5 Charge-Based Model of Current Through a Capacitor2.23.6 Capacitor Water Analogy2.23.7 Energy in a Capacitor2.23.8 RC Time Constant2.23.9 Stray Capacitance2.23.10 Capacitors in Parallel2.23.11 Capacitors in Series2.23.12 Alternating Current in a Capacitor2.23.13 Capacitive Reactance2.23.14 Capacitive Divider2.23.15 Quality Factor2.24 Inductors2.24.1 Electromagnetism2.24.2 Magnetic Fields and Their Influence2.24.3 Self-Inductance2.24.4 Inductors2.24.5 Inductor Water Analogy2.24.6 Inductor Equations2.24.7 Energy Within an Inductor2.24.8 Inductor Cores2.24.9 Understanding the Inductor Equations2.24.10 Energizing RL Circuit2.24.11 Deenergizing RL Circuit2.24.12 Voltage Spikes Due to Switching2.24.13 Straight-Wire Inductance2.24.14 Mutual Inductance and Magnetic Coupling2.24.15 Unwanted Coupling: Spikes, Lightning, and Other Pulses2.24.16 Inductors in Series and Parallel2.24.17 Alternating Current and Inductors2.24.18 Inductive Reactance2.24.19 Nonideal Inductor Model2.24.20 Quality Factor2.24.21 Inductor Applications2.25 Modeling Complex Circuits2.26 Complex Numbers2.27 Circuit with Sinusoidal Sources2.27.1 Analyzing Sinusoidal Circuits with Complex Impedances2.27.2 Sinusoidal Voltage Source in Complex Notation2.27.3 Odd Phenomena in Reactive Circuits
2.28.1 Power Factor2.29 Thevenin’s Theorem in AC Form2.30 Resonant Circuits2.30.1 Resonance in RLC Circuits2.30.2 Q (Quality Factor) and Bandwidth2.30.3 Bandwidth2.30.4 Voltage Drop Across Components in RLC Resonant Circuit2.30.5 Capacitor Losses2.30.6 Parallel-Resonant Circuits2.30.7 The Q of Loaded Circuits2.31 Lecture on Decibels2.31.1 Alternative Decibel Representations2.32 Input and Output Impedance2.32.1 Input Impedance2.32.2 Output Impedance2.33 Two-Port Networks and Filters2.33.1 Filters2.33.2 Attenuators2.34 Transient Circuits2.34.1 Series RLC Circuit2.35 Circuits with Periodic Nonsinusoidal Sources2.35.1 Fourier Series2.36 Nonperiodic Sources2.37 SPICE2.37.1 How SPICE Works2.37.2 Limitations of SPICE and Other Simulators2.37.3 A Simple Simulation Example
3.1 Wires, Cables, and Connectors3.1.1 Wires3.1.2 Cables3.1.3 Connectors3.1.4 Wiring and Connector Symbols3.1.5 High-Frequency Effects Within Wires and Cables3.2 Batteries3.2.1 How a Cell Works3.2.2 Primary Batteries3.2.3 Comparing Primary Batteries3.2.4 Secondary Batteries3.2.5 Battery Capacity3.2.6 Note on Internal Voltage Drop of a Battery3.3 Switches3.3.1 How a Switch Works3.3.2 Describing a Switch3.3.3 Kinds of Switches3.3.4 Simple Switch Applications3.4 Relays3.4.1 Specific Kinds of Relays3.4.2 A Few Notes about Relays3.4.3 Some Simple Relay Circuits3.5 Resistors3.5.1 Resistance and Ohm’s Law3.5.2 Resistors in Series and Parallel3.5.3 Reading Resistor Labels3.5.4 Real Resistor Characteristics3.5.5 Types of Resistors3.5.6 Variable Resistors (Rheostats, Potentiometers, Trimmers)3.5.7 Potentiometer Characteristics
3.6.1 Capacitance3.6.2 Capacitors in Parallel3.6.3 Capacitors in Series3.6.4 RC Time Constant3.6.5 Capacitive Reactance3.6.6 Real Capacitors3.6.7 Capacitor Specifications3.6.8 Types of Capacitors3.6.9 Capacitor Applications3.6.10 Timing and Sample and Hold3.6.11 RC Ripple Filter3.6.12 Arc Suppression3.6.13 Supercapacitor Applications3.6.14 Problems3.7 Inductors3.7.1 Inductance3.7.2 Constructing Inductors3.7.3 Inductors in Series and Parallel3.7.4 RL Time Constant3.7.5 Inductive Reactance3.7.6 Real Inductors3.7.7 Inductor Specifications3.7.8 Types of Inductors3.7.9 Reading Inductor Labels3.7.10 Inductor Applications3.7.11 EMI/EMC Design Tips3.8 Transformers3.8.1 Basic Operations3.8.2 Transformer Construction3.8.3 Autotransformers and Variable Transformers3.8.4 Circuit Isolation and the Isolation Transformer3.8.5 Various Standard and Specialized Transformers3.8.6 Transformer Applications3.9 Fuses and Circuit Breakers3.9.1 Types of Fuses and Circuit Breakers
4.1 Semiconductor Technology4.1.1 What Is a Semiconductor?4.1.2 Applications of Silicon4.2 Diodes4.2.1 How p-n Junction Diodes Work4.2.2 Diode Water Analogy4.2.3 Kinds of Rectifiers/Diodes4.2.4 Practical Considerations4.2.5 Diode/Rectifier Applications4.2.6 Zener Diodes4.2.7 Zener Diode Applications4.2.8 Varactor Diodes (Variable Capacitance Diodes)4.2.9 PIN Diodes4.2.10 Microwave Diodes (IMPATT, Gunn, Tunnel, etc.)4.2.11 Problems4.3 Transistors4.3.1 Introduction to Transistors4.3.2 Bipolar Transistors4.3.3 Junction Field-Effect Transistors4.3.4 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors4.3.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)4.3.6 Unijunction Transistors
4.4.1 Introduction4.4.2 Silicon-Controlled Rectifiers4.4.3 Silicon-Controlled Switches4.4.4 Triacs4.4.5 Four-Layer Diodes and Diacs4.5 Transient Voltage Suppressors4.5.1 Lecture on Transients4.5.2 Devices Used to Suppress Transients4.6 Integrated Circuits4.6.1 IC Packages
5.1 A Little Lecture on Photons5.2 Lamps5.3 Light-Emitting Diodes5.3.1 How an LED Works5.3.2 Kinds of LEDs5.3.3 More on LEDs5.3.4 LED Applications5.3.5 Laser Diodes5.4 Photoresistors5.4.1 How a Photoresistor Works5.4.2 Technical Stuff5.4.3 Applications5.5 Photodiodes5.5.1 How a Photodiode Works5.5.2 Basic Operations5.5.3 Kinds of Photodiodes5.6 Solar Cells5.6.1 Basic Operations5.7 Phototransistors5.7.1 How a Phototransistor Works5.7.2 Basic Configurations5.7.3 Kinds of Phototransistors5.7.4 Technical Stuff5.7.5 Applications5.8 Photothyristors5.8.1 How LASCRs Work5.8.2 Basic Operation5.9 Optoisolators5.9.1 Integrated Optoisolators5.9.2 Applications5.10 Optical Fiber
6.1 General Principles6.1.1 Precision, Accuracy, and Resolution6.1.2 The Observer Effect6.1.3 Calibration6.2 Temperature6.2.1 Thermistors6.2.2 Thermocouples6.2.3 Resistive Temperature Detectors6.2.4 Analog Output Thermometer ICs6.2.5 Digital Thermometer ICs6.2.6 Infrared Thermometers/Pyrometers6.2.7 Summary6.3 Proximity and Touch6.3.1 Touch Screens6.3.2 Ultrasonic Distance6.3.3 Optical Distance6.3.4 Capacitive Sensors6.3.5 Summary6.4 Movement, Force, and Pressure6.4.1 Passive Infrared6.4.2 Acceleration6.4.3 Rotation6.4.4 Flow6.4.5 Force6.4.6 Tilt6.4.7 Vibration and Mechanical Shock6.4.8 Pressure6.5 Chemical6.5.1 Smoke6.5.2 Gas6.5.3 Humidity6.6 Light, Radiation, Magnetism, and Sound6.6.1 Light6.6.2 Ionizing Radiation6.6.3 Magnetic Fields6.6.4 Sound6.7 GPS
7.1 Safety7.1.1 Lecture on Safety7.1.2 Damaging Components with Electrostatic Discharge7.1.3 Component Handling Precautions7.2 Constructing Circuits7.2.1 Drawing a Circuit Schematic7.2.2 A Note on Circuit Simulator Programs7.2.3 Making a Prototype of Your Circuit7.2.4 The Final Circuit7.2.5 Making a PCB7.2.6 Special Pieces of Hardware Used in Circuit Construction7.2.7 Soldering7.2.8 Desoldering7.2.9 Enclosing the Circuit7.2.10 Useful Items to Keep Handy7.2.11 Troubleshooting the Circuits You Build7.3 Multimeters7.3.1 Basic Operation7.3.2 How Analog VOMs Work7.3.3 How Digital Multimeters Work7.3.4 A Note on Measurement Errors7.4 Oscilloscopes7.4.1 How Scopes Work7.4.2 Interior Circuitry of a Scope7.4.3 Aiming the Beam7.4.4 Scope Usage7.4.5 What All the Little Knobs and Switches Do7.4.6 Measuring Things with Scopes7.4.7 Scope Applications7.4.8 Measuring Impedances7.5 The Electronics Laboratory7.5.1 Work Area7.5.2 Test Equipment7.5.3 Multimeters7.5.4 DC Power Supplies7.5.5 Oscilloscope7.5.6 Oscilloscope Probes7.5.7 General-Purpose Function Generator7.5.8 Frequency Counter7.5.9 Computer7.5.10 Miscellaneous Test Equipment7.5.11 Multifunction PC Instruments7.5.12 Isolation Transformers7.5.13 Variable Transformers, or Variacs7.5.14 Substitution Boxes7.5.15 Test Cables, Connectors, and Adapters7.5.16 Soldering Equipment7.5.17 Prototyping Boards7.5.18 Hand Tools7.5.19 Wires, Cables, Hardware, and Chemicals7.5.20 Electronics Catalogs7.5.21 Recommended Electronics Parts7.5.22 Electronic CAD Programs7.5.23 Building Your Own Workbench
8.1 Operational Amplifier Water Analogy8.2 How Op Amps Work (The “Cop-Out” Explanation)8.3 Theory8.4 Negative Feedback8.5 Positive Feedback8.6 Real Kinds of Op Amps8.7 Op Amp Specifications8.8 Powering Op Amps8.9 Some Practical Notes8.10 Voltage and Current Offset Compensation8.11 Frequency Compensation8.12 Comparators8.13 Comparators with Hysteresis8.13.1 Inverting Comparator with Hysteresis8.13.2 Noninverting Comparator with Hysteresis8.14 Using Single-Supply Comparators8.15 Window Comparator8.16 Voltage-Level Indicator8.17 Instrumentation Amplifiers8.18 Applications
9.1 Things to Know Before You Start Designing Filters9.2 Basic Filters9.3 Passive Low-Pass Filter Design9.4 A Note on Filter Types9.5 Passive High-Pass Filter Design9.6 Passive Bandpass Filter Design9.7 Passive Notch Filter Design9.8 Active Filter Design9.8.1 Active Low-Pass Filter Example9.8.2 Active High-Pass Filter Example9.8.3 Active Bandpass Filters9.8.4 Active Notch Filters9.9 Integrated Filter Circuits
10.1 RC Relaxation Oscillators10.2 The 555 Timer IC10.2.1 How a 555 Works (Astable Operation)10.2.2 Basic Astable Operation10.2.3 How a 555 Works (Monostable Operation)10.2.4 Basic Monostable Operation10.2.5 Some Important Notes about 555 Timers10.2.6 Simple 555 Applications10.3 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators10.4 Wien-Bridge and Twin-T Oscillators10.5 LC Oscillators (Sinusoidal Oscillators)10.6 Crystal Oscillators10.7 Microcontroller Oscillators
11.1 Voltage-Regulator ICs11.1.1 Fixed-Regulator ICs11.1.2 Adjustable-Regulator ICs11.1.3 Regulator Specifications11.2 A Quick Look at a Few Regulator Applications11.3 The Transformer11.4 Rectifier Packages11.5 A Few Simple Power Supplies11.6 Technical Points about Ripple Reduction11.7 Loose Ends11.8 Switching Regulator Supplies (Switchers)11.9 Switch-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS)11.10 Kinds of Commercial Power Supply Packages11.11 Power Supply Construction
12.1 The Basics of Digital Electronics12.1.1 Digital Logic States12.1.2 Number Codes Used in Digital Electronics12.1.3 Clock Timing and Parallel versus Serial Transmission12.2 Logic Gates12.2.1 Multiple-Input Logic Gates12.2.2 Digital Logic Gate ICs12.2.3 Applications for a Single Logic Gate12.2.4 Combinational Logic12.2.5 Keeping Circuits Simple (Karnaugh Maps)12.3 Combinational Devices12.3.1 Multiplexers (Data Selectors) and Bilateral Switches12.3.2 Demultiplexers (Data Distributors) and Decoders12.3.3 Encoders and Code Converters12.3.4 Binary Adders12.3.5 Binary Adder/Subtractor12.3.6 Comparators and Magnitude Comparator ICs12.3.7 A Note on Obsolescence and the Trend Toward Microcontroller Control12.4 Logic Families12.4.1 CMOS Family of ICs12.4.2 I/O Voltages and Noise Margins12.4.3 Current Ratings, Fanout, and Propagation Delays12.5 Powering and Testing Logic ICs12.5.1 Power Supply Decoupling12.5.2 Unused Inputs12.5.3 Logic Probes and Logic Pulsers12.6 Sequential Logic12.6.1 SR Flip-Flops12.6.2 SR Flip-Flop ICs12.6.3 D-Type Flip-Flops12.6.4 Quad and Octal D Flip-Flops12.6.5 JK Flip-Flops12.6.6 Practical Timing Considerations with Flip-Flops12.6.7 Digital Clock Generators and Single-Pulse Generators12.6.8 Automatic Power-Up Clear (Reset) Circuits12.6.9 Pullup and Pulldown Resistors
12.7.1 Asynchronous Counter (Ripple Counter) ICs12.7.2 Synchronous Counter ICs12.7.3 A Note on Counters with Displays12.8 Shift Registers12.8.1 Serial-In/Serial-Out Shift Registers12.8.2 Serial-In/Parallel-Out Shift Registers12.8.3 Parallel-In/Serial-Out Shift Registers12.8.4 Ring Counter (Shift Register Sequencer)12.8.5 Johnson Shift Counter12.8.6 Shift Register ICs12.8.7 Simple Shift Register Applications12.9 Analog/Digital Interfacing12.9.1 Triggering Simple Logic Responses from Analog Signals12.9.2 Using Logic to Drive External Loads12.9.3 Analog Switches12.9.4 Analog Multiplexer/Demultiplexer12.9.5 Analog-to-Digital and Digital-to-Analog Conversion12.9.6 Analog-to-Digital Converters12.10 Displays12.10.1 LED Displays12.10.2 Liquid-Crystal Displays12.11 Memory Devices12.11.1 Read-Only Memory12.11.2 Simple ROM Made Using Diodes12.11.3 Memory Size and Organization12.11.4 Simple Programmable ROM12.11.5 ROM Devices12.11.6 RAM
13.1 Basic Structure of a Microcontroller13.2 Example Microcontrollers13.2.1 The ATtiny85 Microcontroller13.2.2 The PIC16Cx Microcontrollers13.2.3 32-Bit Microcontrollers13.2.4 Digital Signal Processing13.3 Evaluation/Development Boards13.4 Arduino13.4.1 A Tour of Arduino13.4.2 The Arduino IDE13.4.3 Arduino Board Models13.4.4 Shields13.4.5 The Arduino C Library13.4.6 Arduino Example Project13.4.7 Taking the Arduino Offboard13.5 Interfacing with Microcontrollers13.5.1 Switches13.5.2 Analog Inputs13.5.3 High-Power Digital Outputs13.5.4 Sound Interfaces13.5.5 Serial Interfaces13.5.6 Level Conversion13.5.7 LED Display Interfaces
14.1 Programmable Logic14.2 FPGAs14.3 ISE and the Elbert V214.3.1 Installing ISE14.4 The Elbert 2 Board14.4.1 Installing the Elbert Software14.5 Downloads14.6 Drawing Your FPGA Logic Design14.6.1 Example 1: A Data Selector14.6.2 Example 2: A 4-bit Ripple Counter14.7 Verilog14.7.1 Modules14.7.2 Wires, Registers, and Busses14.7.3 Parallel Execution14.7.4 Number Format14.8 Describing Your FPGA Design in Verilog14.8.1 A Data Selector in Verilog14.8.2 A Ripple Counter in Verilog14.9 Modular Design14.9.1 Counter/Decoder Example14.9.2 Multiplexed 7-Segment Counter Example14.9.3 Parameterized Modules14.10 Simulation14.11 VHDL
15.1 DC Continuous Motors15.2 Speed Control of DC Motors15.3 Directional Control of DC Motors15.4 RC Servos15.5 Stepper Motors15.6 Kinds of Stepper Motors15.7 Driving Stepper Motors15.8 Controlling the Driver with a Translator15.9 A Final Word on Identifying Stepper Motors
16.1 A Little Lecture on Sound16.2 Microphones16.3 Microphone Specifications16.4 Audio Amplifiers16.4.1 Inverting Amplifier16.4.2 Noninverting Amplifier16.4.3 Digital Amplifiers16.4.4 Reducing Hum in Audio Amplifiers16.5 Preamplifiers16.6 Mixer Circuits16.7 A Note on Impedance Matching16.8 Speakers16.9 Crossover Networks16.10 Simple ICs Used to Drive Speakers16.11 Audible-Signal Devices16.12 Miscellaneous Audio Circuits
17.1 There’s an IC for It17.2 Breakout Boards and Modules17.2.1 Radio Frequency Modules17.2.2 Audio Modules17.3 Plug-and-Play Prototyping17.4 Open Source Hardware
A.1 Power DistributionA.2 A Closer Look at Three-Phase ElectricityA.3 Home WiringA.4 Electricity in Other Countries
B.1 Absolute Error, Relative Error, and Percent ErrorB.2 Uncertainty Estimates
C.1 Greek AlphabetC.2 Powers of 10 Unit PrefixesC.3 Linear Functions (y = mx + b)C.4 Quadratic Equation (y = ax2 + bx + c)C.5 Exponents and LogarithmsC.6 TrigonometryC.7 Complex NumbersC.8 Differential CalculusC.9 Integral Calculus

Content preview from Practical Electronics for Inventors, Fourth Edition, 4th Edition

APPENDIX B

Error Analysis

Reliability estimates of measurements greatly enhance their value. For example, saying the resistance of a resistor is 1000 Ω ± 50 Ω tells you much more than simply stating the resistance is 1000 Ω.

The term error is basically interchangeable with uncertainty, but does not have the same meaning as mistake. Mistakes, such as errors in calculations, should be corrected before estimating the experimental error. In estimating the reliability of a single quantity (such as resistance), you should recognize three different kinds of sources of error:

Actual variations of the quantity being measured, for example, resistance changes due to temperature variations. In electronics, for accurate measurements, you should consider ...