book

The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics

Name: The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics
Author: Carol A. Chapelle
ISBN: 9781119147367

by Carol A. Chapelle

January 2020

Intermediate to advanced

1288 pages

57h 59m

English

Wiley-Blackwell

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Cover
Thematic List of Entries
Analysis of Context of Language UseAnalysis of Language UseLanguage Assessment and TestingLanguage Learning and TeachingLanguage Policy and PlanningLanguage for Specific PurposesLinguistic Analysis for Applied ProblemsMultilingualismResearch MethodsSecond Language DevelopmentTechnology and LanguageTranslation and InterpretingWorld Englishes
Alphabetical List of Entries
General Editor
Contributors
Introduction to The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics
Defining Applied LinguisticsProblems in Applied LinguisticsResearch in Applied LinguisticsReading The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied LinguisticsReferencesSuggested ReadingsNote
Acknowledgments
A
AdverbsForm and FunctionClassificationSemantic RolesAdverbs in DiscourseReferencesSuggested ReadingsAfrican UnionIntroductionColonialism, Postcolonialism, and Language Policy and IdeologiesThe African Union and Africa's Past Language PoliciesThe African Union and Attitudes Toward African LanguagesThe African Union and Prospects for the Indigenous African LanguagesReferencesSuggested ReadingsAgency in Second Language AcquisitionSignificance of Agency in SLA: A Theoretical OverviewTheoretical Perspectives on Agency in SLAResearch Into Agency in L2 Learning and TeachingConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingNoteAnalysis of DialogueDialoguesOrganizationIntersubjectivitySocial ContextConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsAnalysis of Gender in InteractionWhat Is Gender in Human Interaction?The Polysemy of Gendered LanguageReferencesSuggested ReadingsAnthropological LinguisticsReferencesSuggested ReadingsAptitude in Second Language AcquisitionReferencesSuggested ReadingsAssessment in the ClassroomApproaches of Classroom AssessmentAssessment for Summative Purposes or Assessment of LearningAssessment for Formative Purposes or Assessment for LearningAssessment as LearningThe Role of Standards in Classroom AssessmentConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteAssessment of Cultural KnowledgeIntroductionConceptualizing Cultural KnowledgeThe Nature of Instruments Assessing Cultural KnowledgeSelected Cultural Knowledge Assessment InstrumentsConclusionReferencesOnline ResourcesNoteAssessment of Integrated SkillsTest TasksComputer MadnessResearch in the Assessment of Integrated SkillsBenefits of Integrated AssessmentChallenges of Integrated AssessmentDevelopmentReliability and RatingValidityConclusionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsAssessment of the Linguistic Resources of CommunicationRepresenting the Linguistic Resources of CommunicationConceptualizing L2 Proficiency as Knowledge of Grammatical FormsConceptualizing L2 Proficiency as a Set of Resources for Communicating Contextualized MeaningsMeasuring the Linguistic Resources of CommunicationConclusionReferencesNoteAssessment of ListeningListening ProcessesFactors Affecting ListeningTasks for Assessing ListeningLimitations of Listening Assessment TasksComputers in Assessing ListeningCurrent and Future Directions in Assessing ListeningReferencesSuggested ReadingsAssessment of PragmaticsThe ConstructTests Under the Speech Act ConstructMeasurement of Interactional AbilitiesChallenges in Testing L2 PragmaticsConclusionReferencesAssessment of ReadingBrief History of Reading ResearchLinguistic Knowledge and Reading AbilityReading Ability in a Second LanguageReading Assessment in a Second LanguageUnique Challenges in L2 Reading AssessmentFuture Directions in Second Language Reading AssessmentReferencesSuggested ReadingsAssessment of SpeakingSpeaking Assessment MethodsRating Scales and Scale DescriptorsRatersConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsAssessment of VocabularyIntroductionSelection of Target ItemsDesign of AssessmentsConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsAssessment of WritingPurposes of Writing TestsThe Nature of Second Language WritingTypes of Writing AssessmentsCharacteristics of Writing Tests: Tasks and ScoringChallenges and Opportunities for the FutureReferencesSuggested ReadingsAttention, Noticing, and Awareness in Second Language AcquisitionIntroductionTheoretical Approaches to the Roles of Attention and Awareness in SLAAttention/Noticing and Learning: Empirical Evidence in SLAAwareness and Learning in SLAEmpirical Evidence for the Role of Awareness in SLALearning Without Awareness?Where Do We Go From Here?ConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsAttitudes and Motivation in Bilingual EducationIntroductionAttitudesMotivationDifferent Motivational ModelsMinority LanguagesForeign Languages: Global EnglishConclusionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsAudiovisual TranslationMultimedia TranslationAVT ModalitiesDubbingSubtitlingFansubbingAccessibilityReferencesAuthenticity in the Language Teaching CurriculumAuthentic Materials in a Historical ContextPedagogical ChallengesReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteAutomatic Speech RecognitionDefinitionHistorical OverviewChallenges and Applications of ASRASR in Applied LinguisticsAutomatic Rating of PronunciationOther ASR Applications in Applied LinguisticsFuture DirectionsReferencesSuggested Readings
B
Bilingualism and CognitionBilingualism and LanguageBilingualism and Nonverbal CognitionReferencesSuggested ReadingsBilingual and Monolingual Language ModesLanguage ModeEvidence for Language Mode Language Mode in Different Groups of BilingualsLanguage Mode in ResearchConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNote
C
Case StudyDefining Case‐Study ResearchCase Studies in Applied LinguisticsIssues in Case‐Study ResearchCase Studies in Mixed Methods ResearchConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsChaos/Complexity Theory for Second Language Acquisition/DevelopmentIntroductionTraditional Views of SLAShifting the MetaphorLanguage Users/LearnersUsage‐Based EmergentismIndividual DifferencesImplications for Research MethodsConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsClassroom ResearchWhat Is Classroom Research?What Are the Origins of L2 Classroom Research?Are There Different Approaches to Classroom Research?What Questions and Topics Are Examined in CR?Future Directions in CRReferencesSuggested ReadingsCognitive Approaches to TranslationMethodological ApproachesTranslation as Information Processing and Symbol ManipulationTranslation as an Experiential, Cultural ActTranslation as Situated, Sociocognitive InteractionReferencesCollaborative Language LearningReferencesSuggested ReadingsComputer‐Assisted Language Learning Effectiveness ResearchIntroductionResearch Findings on CALL EffectivenessApproaches to Evaluating CALL EffectivenessCALL Evaluation ArgumentConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteComputer‐Assisted Pronunciation TeachingTechnology for Teaching Segmentals (Vowels and Consonants)Technology for Teaching Suprasegmentals (Prosody, Intonation, Rhythm)Outlook for the FutureReferencesSuggested ReadingsComputer‐Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)ReferencesSuggested ReadingOnline ResourcesComputer‐Mediated Communication and Second Language DevelopmentReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteConstruction GrammarIntroductionConstruction Grammar: The Central IdeasApplicationsConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsOnline ResourceContent‐Based Second/Foreign‐Language InstructionIntroductionThree Main CBLI ModelsImplementation IssuesResearch AgendaConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsConversation Analysis and Affiliation and AlignmentIntroductionDistinguishing Affiliation and AlignmentCreating an Environment for Alignment and AffiliationDisaligning and DisaffiliatingAffiliating Without AligningAligning Without AffiliatingDiscussionReferencesSuggested ReadingsConversation Analysis and Child Language AcquisitionCompetencies and UnderstandingsChildhood: Interactions in Pre‐ and Early‐Years Primary School SettingsReferencesSuggested ReadingConversation Analysis and Classroom InteractionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteConversation Analysis of Computer‐Mediated InteractionsFuture TrendsReferencesSuggested ReadingsConversation Analysis and Interactional LinguisticsIntroductionBasic AssumptionsHistorical DevelopmentResearch Principles and MethodsObjects of ResearchFindingsReferencesSuggested ReadingsConversation Analysis and LaughterIntroductionThe Interactional Environments of LaughterLaughter and Social ContextConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsConversation Analysis Methodology in Second Language StudiesIntroductionCompatibility of CA and L2 StudiesTypes of StudiesCA Methodological and Procedural Positions in L2 StudiesIn Conclusion: Applying CA to L2 StudiesReferencesSuggested ReadingsConversation Analysis and Second Language Acquisition: CA‐SLACA, SLA, and CA‐SLAReconceptualizing Learning and CognitionMethodological UnderpinningsAnalyzing L2 Interactions and Learning EnvironmentsAnalyzing L2 LearningConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsConversation Analysis: Transcriptions and DataTranscriptions and DataRecordings and DataTranscriptionSpecific IssuesReferencesSuggested ReadingsCorpus Analysis of Business EnglishCorpora of Business EnglishLinguistic Analyses of Business English CorporaMultidimensional Analysis of Business English CorporaReferencesSuggested ReadingsCorpus Analysis in Forensic LinguisticsComparative Authorship AnalysisAuthorship ProfilingTrademark DisputesDetermination of MeaningConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsCorpus Analysis of Key WordsIntroductionMethod: How Are Key Words Calculated?Problems, Limitations, and Extensions of the TechniqueExample ApplicationsReferencesSuggested ReadingsCorpus Analysis of Political LanguageTypes of Corpus‐Assisted Studies Into the Language of PoliticsPotential Sources of DataTypes of Research ObjectivesThe Added Value of Using CorporaModern Diachronic Corpus‐Assisted Discourse Studies (MD‐CADS)Research as Activism or Research for Knowledge's Own Sake?ConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteCorpus Linguistics in Language TeachingWhat Relevance Does Corpus Linguistics Have for Language Teaching?Corpus Linguistics in the Classroom: Options for Language TeachersConclusionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsCorpus Linguistics: Quantitative MethodsIntroductionDistinctive Collexeme AnalysisApplicationsConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsCouncil of Europe Language Policy and PlanningIntroductionPolicy Documents and Tools in Support of Plurilingual People Living in Multilingual SocietiesThe European Centre for Modern LanguagesReferencesNoteCritical Analysis of Political DiscourseReferencesSuggested ReadingsCritical Pedagogy in Language TeachingReferencesSuggested ReadingsCritical PeriodReferencesSuggested ReadingsCross‐Cultural PragmaticsContext Shaping MeaningLanguage Shaping ContextCommon GroundFields of ApplicationConclusionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsCrosslinguistic Influence in Second Language AcquisitionTerminologyThe Verification of CLIMain FindingsTheoretical and Empirical AdvancesReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteCultural Approaches to TranslationIntroductionTranslation From CulturesTranslating for CulturesTranslating Between CulturesReferencesSuggested Readings

D
Difficulty and Complexity of Language Features and Second Language InstructionIntroductionThe IssuesThe EvidenceThe Problems and ChallengesSummary and Future DirectionsReferencesSuggested ReadingDiscourse and IdentitySocial Identities in DiscoursePersonal Identities in NarrativeDigital, Networked, and Posthuman IdentitiesReferencesSuggested Readings
E
Early BilingualismMajor Linguistic Developments in BFLA and ESLAApplied Aspects of Early BilingualismReferencesSuggested ReadingsEnglish for Academic PurposesIntroductionGeneric or Specific Attributes in EAP?Approaches to EAPConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsEnglish in Asian and European Higher EducationReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteEnglish for BusinessIntroductionResearching Written and Spoken Business EnglishThe Effects of Using English for BusinessEnglish for Business in the FutureReferencesSuggested ReadingsEnglish for Occupational PurposesIntroductionSurveys in English for Occupational PurposesAnalyzing Language and Interactions at WorkEnglish for Occupational Purposes in Different Workplace SettingsThe Social Dimension of English for Occupational PurposesConclusionReferencesEnglish‐Only MovementHistorical BackgroundThe Rise of the Contemporary English‐Only MovementPropositions 227 and 203Proposition 58 and the FutureReferencesSuggested ReadingsEpistemology and OntologyIntroductionOntology Within MetaphysicsEpistemologyTheories of Knowledge in Mainstream and Second Language ResearchConstructivist Epistemology and Second Language Research KnowledgeKnowledge of Second or Foreign Languages and Language Teachers' KnowledgeReferencesEthnography of Communication as a Research PerspectiveHymes's Theoretical Model“Doing Ethnography”ConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsExplicit Knowledge and Grammar Explanation in Second Language InstructionWhat Is Explicit Knowledge?Isolated or Integrated Grammar Instruction?Grammar ExplanationOther Ways of Explaining GrammarWhat to ExplainTaking the Learner Into AccountConclusionReferencesSuggested Readings
F
First Language Vocabulary AcquisitionReferencesSuggested ReadingsForeign AccentWhy Is a Foreign Accent So Difficult to Overcome?Two Main Linguistic Sources of Foreign Accent: L1 Transfer and UniversalsWhy Are Some Phenomena More Difficult to Learn Than Others?ConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsForm‐Focused InstructionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteFormulaic Language and CollocationThe Functions of Formulaic LanguageAcquisition of Formulaic LanguageNon‐Native Use of Formulaic LanguageConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteFormulaic SequencesDefinitionFunctionsEvidenceTheoretical IssuesFormulaic Sequences in SLAThe FutureReferencesSuggested ReadingsFrame AnalysisBateson's Conception of Frame“Frame,” “Keying,” and “Footing”Various Perspectives of Frame Analysis: Interactive Frame and Cognitive/Knowledge FrameStudies of Frame AnalysisConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsFunctional Approaches to TranslationHistorical BackgroundBasic Concepts and Ideas of Skopos TheoryApplications to Translator TrainingConclusionsReferencesSuggested Readings
G
Genre‐Based Language TeachingReferencesSuggested ReadingsGenre and Discourse Analysis in Language for Specific PurposesDiscourse and Genre AnalysisGenre Structures and FeaturesGenre and CommunityGenre ConstellationsGenre PedagogiesCritiquesConclusionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsGrammar in Academic WritingNoun Phrase CharacteristicsThematizationPersonal PronounsTenseCohesionHedgingIntertextuality, Citation, and Knowledge ClaimsReferencesSuggested ReadingsGrammar and Electronic CommunicationIntroductionE‐Grammar in EnglishEmoji GrammarE‐Grammar and Language ChangeE‐Grammar and LiteracyReferencesSuggested ReadingsNote
H
Heritage Languages and Language PolicyDefining Heritage LanguagesDefining HL LearnersUS Language Policy for Heritage LanguagesLooking AheadReferencesSuggested ReadingsHistorical PragmaticsIntroductionApproaches and DataApplicationConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsHistory of Language‐Teaching MethodsEarly HistoryGrammar Translation MethodDirect MethodAudio‐Lingual MethodCognitive Approaches to Language TeachingCommunicative Language TeachingConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsHistory of TranslationThe Object of InquiryResearch Questions and Source Collection, Evaluation, and InterpretationWriting Translation HistorySample Approaches to Translation HistoryToward Integrative Translation HistoryReferencesSuggested Readings
I
Identities and Language Teaching in ClassroomsTheories of the SocialTheories of the SociomaterialExplorations in SociomaterialismConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsIdentity and Second Language AcquisitionTheoretical FrameworkIdentity on the SLA AgendaKey Directions in Identity ResearchConclusionReferencesImmersion EducationProgram Models and OutcomesPedagogical IssuesConclusionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsInnovation in Language Teaching and LearningIntroductionReasons for Educational InnovationInnovation ImplementationBarriers to Innovation ImplementationThe Importance of Secondary InnovationsReferencesSuggested ReadingsInstructed Second Language AcquisitionReferencesSuggested ReadingsIntelligibility in World EnglishesReferencesSuggested ReadingsIntercultural CompetenceCompetenceModels of Intercultural CompetenceContexts and ApplicationsAssessment or Measuring of Intercultural CompetenceReferencesSuggested ReadingsIntercultural InteractionIntroductionCulture and Achieving UnderstandingCulture and the Management of RelationsCulture, Identity, and Personal GrowthCompetence in Intercultural InteractionReferencesSuggested ReadingsInterlanguageOrigins of the Concept of InterlanguageDefining InterlanguageThe Relevant Data for the Study of InterlanguageThe Revised Interlanguage HypothesisReferencesSuggested ReadingsInternational Phonetic AlphabetIntroductionHistoryThe International Phonetic Alphabet, English Spelling, and DictionariesThe International Phonetic Alphabet ItselfThe International Phonetic Alphabet on the ComputerConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteInterviews in Qualitative ResearchForms of Interviewing in Qualitative ResearchDesigning Qualitative Studies That Use InterviewsAsking QuestionsIssues in Conducting InterviewsTheorizing InterviewsTranscribing and Analyzing Interview DataQuality in InterviewingThe Future of Interview ResearchReferencesSuggested ReadingsOnline Resources
K
Knowledge Base of Language TeachersTeachers' Knowledge About LanguageTeachers' Knowledge of Second Language AcquisitionTeachers' Identities, Moral Values, and Critical ConsciousnessLanguage Teachers' Sense Making in ActionReferencesSuggested Readings
L
Language, Culture, and ContextAn Integrative View of LanguageLanguage and CultureCultural Dimensions of LanguageThe Language–Culture Nexus in ContextReferencesSuggested ReadingNoteLanguage and GlobalizationReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteLanguage and IdentityReferencesSuggested ReadingsLanguage Ideology in the Discourse of Popular CultureReferencesSuggested ReadingsLanguage Ideology and Public DiscourseLanguage Ideology and Public DiscourseLanguage Ideologies: Differences and CommonalitiesPublic Versus Private?Moving Beyond Language: Current Developments in Language Ideology ResearchReferencesSuggested ReadingsLanguage Planning: Qin Shihuangdi's ContributionReferencesSuggested ReadingsLanguage Policy and Planning: Kemal Atatürk’s ContributionReferencesSuggested ReadingNoteLanguage Program EvaluationIntroduction to Program EvaluationThe Emergence of Language Program EvaluationContemporary Impetus for Language Program EvaluationCharacteristics of Contemporary Program EvaluationReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteLanguage Teaching and Learning: Quantitative MethodsAn Example StudyAdditional ConsiderationsReferencesSuggested ReadingAppendix: Data SetLanguaging: Collaborative Dialogue as a Source of Second Language LearningDefinitionCollaborative Dialogue (CD) as a Source of LearningContexts Implicated in the Quality and Quantity of CDMediational Means UsedInseparability of Cognition and EmotionConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingLearner Beliefs in Second Language LearningThe BeginningsThe ClassicsContinuation of Research Along Two LinesMost Recent Research: Further Twists and TurnsConclusion: Challenges and Directions for Future ResearchReferencesSuggested ReadingsLearner CorporaLearner Corpus Design CriteriaLearner Corpus TypologyLearner Corpus MethodologyLearner Corpus AnalysisLearner Corpus‐Based ApplicationsReferencesSuggested ReadingsLexical BorrowingNotable ExamplesFactors That Encourage Lexical BorrowingThe Adaptations of BorrowingReactions to Lexical BorrowingThe Implications of Lexical Borrowing for Foreign/Second Language StudyConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingLexical PrimingReferencesNoteLexicogrammarIntroductionSystemic Functional LinguisticsCorpus LinguisticsReferencesSuggested ReadingLinguacultureReferencesSuggested ReadingsLingua Franca and Language of Wider CommunicationReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteLinguistic ImperialismExpansion Through Linguistic ImperialismOngoing Tensions Between Linguistic Imperialism and ResistanceReferences Suggested ReadingsLinguistic Landscape StudiesIntroductionEmerging ThemesMethodologyOutlook and Further ExpansionReferencesSuggested Readings
M
Materials DevelopmentIntroductionWhat Materials Do Language Learners Need?Should Materials Be Forms or Meaning Focused?Should Materials Be Contrived or Authentic?Should Learners Be Asked to Practice or to Use the Language?Should Materials Be Based on Theories of Language Acquisition?Should Materials Be Global or Local?What Role Can Technology Play in Facilitating Language Acquisition?ConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsMixed MethodsStances on Mixing ParadigmsPurposes of Mixing MethodsMixed Methods Research DesignsMixed Methods Data AnalysisQuality Issues in Mixing MethodsUsing Mixed Methods in Applied Linguistics ResearchReferencesSuggested ReadingsMobile-Assisted Language LearningMALL in Relation to CALLTypical ApplicationsReading and ListeningSpeaking and WritingLocation‐Specific Language LearningSupport for Informal LearningControl Over LearningMobile LearnersAccessibility and UsabilityMALL Within Mobile LearningSummaryReferencesSuggested ReadingsMotivation in Second Language AcquisitionReferencesSuggested ReadingsMove AnalysisMove Analysis as an Analytical ApproachMove Analysis as a Pedagogical ApproachMove Analysis Crossing BoundariesReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteMulticompetencePremises of MulticompetenceMulticompetence and SLA MethodologyEffects of the L2 on the L2 UserBilingual CognitionMulticompetence and Language TeachingConclusionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsMultilingualism and the InternetIntroductionDefining the InternetDifferent Ways of Using the Internet as a Source of Multilingual DataParadigms of Research on Multilingualism on the InternetMultilingual Language Settings on the InternetMultilingual Internet Discourse as HeteroglossiaMultilingualism on the Internet and Language LearningConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsMultilingualism and Metalinguistic AwarenessIntroduction: Multilingualism and General Cognitive Advantages Types of Metalinguistic AwarenessConditions Affecting the Development or Deployment of Metalinguistic AwarenessMetalinguistic Awareness: Learning to Read, Learning Other LanguagesReferencesSuggested ReadingsMultimodal Discourse AnalysisReferencesSuggested ReadingsMultimodal Interaction AnalysisBackground: Multimodal Interaction AnalysisUnit of AnalysisModal Density Foreground–Background Continuum of Attention/AwarenessUsing Multimodal Interaction Analysis as a MethodReferencesSuggested ReadingsMultimodality and Systemic Functional AnalysisIntroductionWhat Is SF Theory?SF‐MDAConclusionReferences Suggested ReadingsNoteMultimodal Teaching and LearningMultimodalityTeachingLearningTeaching and Learning with L2 StudentsReferencesSuggested ReadingsNote
N
Natural Language Processing and Language Learning NLP and the Analysis of Learner LanguageNLP and the Analysis of Native Language for Learners ReferencesSuggested ReadingsNeeds AnalysisA Rationale for Needs AnalysisUnits of Analysis in NAStage 1 of a Task‐Based NA: Identifying Target TasksStage 2 of a Task‐Based NA: Analysis of Target DiscourseFrom NA to SyllabusReferences Suggested ReadingsNeeds Analysis and Syllabus Design for Language for Specific PurposesIntroductionThe Role and Importance of Needs AnalysisTrends in Scope and MethodsFrom Needs Analysis to Specification of Syllabus ContentThe Role of TheoryIssues in Needs AnalysisConclusionReferencesNew Literacies of Online Research and ComprehensionLiteracy as DeixisHow Should We Conceptualize Literacy as a Deictic Construct?A Dual‐Level Theory of New LiteraciesThe New Literacies of Online Research and ComprehensionWhat Do We Know About the New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension?What Do We Need to Know About the New Literacies of Online Reading Comprehension?The Internet Is a Literacy Issue, Not a Technology IssueLiteracy Is the Internet—the Internet Is LiteracyReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteNon‐Native‐Speaker English TeachersBackgroundBirth of the Non‐Native Speaker MovementReflecting on AchievementsReferencesOnline Resources
O
Online Psycholinguistic Methods in Second Language Acquisition ResearchIntroductionWord MonitoringCross‐Modal PrimingSelf‐Paced Reading/ListeningSelf‐Paced Listening With Picture VerificationComparison Between the Tasks: Advantages and DisadvantagesReferencesSuggested ReadingsOnline ResourcesNoteOrganisation Internationale de la Francophonie ReferencesSuggested Readings
P
Paired and Group Oral Assessment References Suggested ReadingsNotePattern GrammarIntroductionOriginsThe COBUILD PublicationsApplications of Pattern GrammarPattern Grammar and Language TheoryReferencesPhonetics and Phonology: Historical OverviewTerminologyPre‐19th‐Century PhoneticsPhonetics and Phonology in the 19th CenturyPhonetics and Phonology in the 20th CenturyInstrumental PhoneticsThe International Phonetic Association and AlphabetSIL InternationalPhonologyReferencesSuggested ReadingsNotePolitenessReferencesSuggested ReadingsPositivism and PostpositivismA Discipline of DesignHistorically Variable Modes of Applied Linguistics The Coherence of the FieldReferencesSuggested ReadingsPoststructuralism Two Critical IncidentsPoststructuralist Theories of Language, Identity, and Investment Poststructuralist Theory and Classroom PracticePoints of Contention and Sites of Innovation ReferencesPragmatic MarkersIntroduction: On the Nature of Pragmatic MarkersThe Structure of Pragmatic MarkersDo Pragmatic Markers Have a Meaning? Pragmatic Markers, General Extenders, and Second Language AcquisitionReferencesPragmatics of Asynchronous Computer‐Mediated CommunicationMedium‐Specific Features of ACMDThe Variation in Pragmatic Features in ACMC ContextsPragmatic Features of ACMC in L2 Learning ContextsConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsPragmatics of Lingua Franca InteractionWhat Is a Lingua Franca?Pragmatics and Discourse‐Related Studies of ELF: Some Research FindingsConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsPragmatics Research MethodsObservational Data Collection ProceduresElicited Data Collection ProceduresExperimental Collection ProceduresData AnalysisReferencesSuggested ReadingsPragmatic TransferAcknowledgmentReferencesSuggested ReadingsPronunciation AssessmentIntroductionPurposes of Assessing PronunciationMethods of Pronunciation AssessmentChallenges in Defining the ConstructConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsPronunciation Teaching Methods and TechniquesUnderstanding the Basic Features of Pronunciation in EnglishSetting Realistic Goals for InstructionPlanning InstructionTechniques, Tools, and TechnologyReferencesSuggested Readings
Q
Qualitative Corpus AnalysisDefinition and PhilosophyEvolution of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Corpus AnalysisMethodological FoundationsCorpus DesignCorpus Markup and AnnotationData RetrievalData InterpretationPractical ApplicationsConclusionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsQualitative Research on Information and Communication TechnologyCurrent Areas of Inquiry in ICT ResearchConsiderations of Qualitative Methods in ICT Settings New Demands in Qualitative Research in ICTConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsQualitative Sociolinguistics ResearchFormulating Qualitative Sociolinguistic ResearchTraditions in Qualitative Sociolinguistics ResearchObserving Language Use in ContextIssues and Tools in Data CollectionRecent Trends in Qualitative Sociolinguistic Research ReferencesSuggested ReadingsQuantitative MethodsIntroductionTheoretical AssumptionsFormulating the Research QuestionFollowing a Systematic ApproachFactorial DesignsAnswering the Research QuestionReferencesSuggested Readings
R
Rating Oral Language Rating ScalesRater TrainingRating ProcessesRater Bias PatternsFuture TrendsReferences Suggested ReadingsRating Scales and Rubrics in Language AssessmentDefinition and PurposeTypes and UsesApproaches to Rating Scale DevelopmentIssues and ChallengesReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteResearch Methods and Sociocultural Approaches in Second Language AcquisitionZone of Proximal DevelopmentDynamic AssessmentInner SpeechPrivate SpeechThe Regulatory Function of SpeechGestureSocial Situation of DevelopmentHistorical/TheoreticalReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteRhetorical Discourse AnalysisIntroductionThe Tradition of RhetoricDiscourse AnalysisRhetorical Discourse AnalysisRhetorical Discourse Analysis in Rhetorical CriticismRhetorical Discourse Analysis and Rhetoric/CompositionRhetorical Discourse Analysis in the Study of Language Structure and UseConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsRole of Linguistic Human Rights in Language Policy and PlanningIntroduction: Linguistic Human Rights as Part of Language PolicySupplying or Denying Linguistic Human Rights: Good or Bad Language Policy CirclesWhich Demands Are Justified? Is Speaking a Minority Language a Handicap to Get Rid Of?When Can an LHR Approach “Deliver”?ReferencesSuggested ReadingOnline ResourceRoles for Corrective Feedback in Second Language Instruction Types of Corrective FeedbackFunctions of Corrective FeedbackEffects of Corrective FeedbackFuture DirectionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsRussification in the Soviet and Post‐Soviet EraReferencesSuggested Reading
S
Study AbroadReferencesSuggested ReadingsOnline ResourcesSystemic Functional LinguisticsConceptualizing Text/Context Dynamics: Halliday's Three Metafunctions of LanguageThe Ideational Metafunction and Field ResourcesThe Interpersonal Metafunction and Tenor Resources The Textual Metafunction and Mode ResourcesReferencesSuggested Readings
T
Task‐Based Language Assessment Approaches to TBLACurrent Applications of TBLAIssues in TBLAConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsOnline ResourcesNoteTask‐Based Learning: Cognitive UnderpinningsCognitive Processes in Task‐Based LearningDesign Characteristics Affecting the Cognitive Processing Demands of TasksEffects of Cumulative Increases in the Cognitive Demands of Tasks ReferencesSuggested ReadingsTeacher Education for Multilingual EducationReferencesSuggested ReadingsTeaching Culture and Intercultural CompetenceWhat Is Culture?Teaching Culture: Modernist PerspectivesIntercultural CompetenceTeaching Culture: Postmodernist PerspectivesConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteTeaching Reading: Foundations and PracticesResearch on Reading with Implications for Instruction Emphases for Reading InstructionConcluding CommentsReferencesSuggested ReadingTeaching SpeakingSpeaking Under Time PressureWhat to Teach?How to Teach?Teaching Speaking and Theories of SLAReferencesSuggested ReadingsTeaching VocabularyWhich Words Should Be Learned?What Are the Vocabulary Learning Goals?How Will Vocabulary Be Learned in the Course?How Will Vocabulary Learning Be Assessed?ConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsTheses and Dissertations in English for Specific Purposes ReferencesSuggested ReadingsThird Language AcquisitionThe Scope of Third Language AcquisitionDiversity of Third Language AcquisitionMain Trends in Third Language Acquisition ResearchFinal RemarksReferencesSuggested ReadingsTranslanguagingIntroductionTranslanguaging and Language TheoryTranslanguaging in EducationConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteTranslation TheoryGeneral Considerations About TheoryTheoretical Principles Currently Accepted in Translation StudiesConclusions Implied by These Theoretical PrinciplesDifficulties in Formulating Translation TheoryReferences
U
Uses of Language AssessmentsIntroductionClassification of Test UsesTest Use and Test ValidityConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNoteUsing the First Language and Code Switching in Second Language ClassroomsReferencesSuggested Reading
V
Validation of Language AssessmentsThe Consensus View of ValidationMajor Approaches to Validation in Language AssessmentUse‐Specific Validation FrameworksPrevailing Concerns in Validation ResearchReferencesVarieties of English in AsiaReferencesSuggested ReadingsVocabulary and Language for Specific PurposesInvestigating Vocabulary and Language for Specific PurposesTeaching and Learning Vocabulary and Language for Specialized PurposesReferencesSuggested ReadingsOnline ResourcesVocabulary Learning StrategiesWhat VLS Do Students Use?Are VLS Useful? Person, Task, Context, and StrategiesConclusionsReferencesSuggested ReadingsVygotsky and Second Language AcquisitionMeaning in the Internal Thinking/Languaging SystemMethodological ApproachVygotsky and Second Language Acquisition and DevelopmentConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsNote
W
Washback in Language AssessmentReferencesSuggested ReadingsWorld Englishes and Teaching English to Speakers of Other LanguagesTESOL in World Englishes: Early YearsWorld Englishes in TESOL: Early YearsWorld Englishes and TESOL in the 21st CenturyConclusionReferencesSuggested ReadingsWriting and Language for Specific PurposesWriting Needs Across LSP DomainsResearch in Writing and LSPPedagogy in Writing and LSPReferencesSuggested Readings
Index
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UUses of Language Assessments

PHUONG NGUYEN

Introduction

Language tests are used in many contexts and for many purposes. Language test results are used to make judgments about the status, progress, or accomplishments of individual test takers or programs. Other uses of language test scores are screening and placing test takers into appropriate educational programs; selecting employees for hiring or promotion; providing diagnostic information about test takers' strengths and weaknesses, and guiding language instructional interventions. They are also used to judge or monitor the quality of language programs and to act as tools for data gathering in research. Many educational uses of assessments in the classroom are used to help teachers and learners, but tests are also used to make decisions which, in many cases, can have serious implications for the life chances of test takers.

Test use, or purpose, is the first consideration in test design. As Davies (1990) put it, language test developers must first ask the why question (i.e., test purpose) before they can resolve the what, or content, question. Test purpose, or how the scores are interpreted and used to make decisions, is critical for test development for several reasons. First, the test purpose must drive the definition of the knowledge and skills to be tested so that the test content meets the needs of a general or specific interpretation of language ability. For instance, if a test is to be used for selection or admission, ...

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The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics

by Carol A. Chapelle

UUses of Language Assessments

Introduction

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