book

Ultrasonics, 3rd Edition

by Dale Ensminger, Leonard J. Bond

September 2011

Intermediate to advanced

765 pages

24h 40m

English

CRC Press

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Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Chapter 1 Ultrasonics: A Broad Field
1.1 Introduction1.2 Brief Early History1.3 Underwater Sound (SONAR)1.4 Medical and Biological Ultrasonics1.5 Industrial Ultrasonics1.6 Nondestructive Testing/Evaluation1.7 Ultrasonics in Electronics1.8 Physical Acoustics1.9 Ultrasonic Systems: Transmitters and Receivers1.10 Low-Intensity Applications1.11 High-Intensity Applications1.12 Modern Ultrasonics: An Interdisciplinary FieldReferences
Chapter 2 Elastic Wave Propagation and Associated Phenomena
2.1 Introduction2.2 Power Delivered to an Oscillating System2.3 Velocity of Sound2.3.1 Velocity of Sound in Solids2.3.2 Velocity of Sound in Liquids2.3.3 Velocity of Sound in Gases2.4 Impingment of an Ultrasonic Wave on a Boundary between Two Media2.4.1 Simple Reflection and Transmission at Normal Incidence2.4.2 Some Basic Mechanics2.4.3 General Considerations of Incident Waves2.4.4 Development of General Equations for Reflection and Refraction Where Mode Conversion Is Possible2.4.5 Wave Incident on a Liquid–Solid Plane Interface, Semi-Infinite Media2.4.6 Shear Wave at a Solid-Solid Interface Polarized Parallel to the Plane of the Interface2.4.7 Reflection, Refraction, and Mode Conversion in General Applications of Ultrasonic Energy2.5 Transmission through Thin Plates2.6 Diffraction2.6.1 Huygens’ Principle2.6.2 Diffraction in Three-Dimensional Space2.6.3 Directivity Pattern2.6.4 Focusing2.7 Standing Waves2.8 Doppler Effect2.9 Superposition of Waves2.10 Attenuation of an Ultrasonic Wave
2.10.1 Attenuation Due to Beam Spreading
2.10.2 Attenuation Due to Scattering2.10.2.1 Scattering from a Cylindrical Obstruction in a Homogeneous Medium2.10.2.2 Scattering by a Sphere in a Homogeneous Medium2.10.2.3 Scattering from a Disk-Shaped Cavity in the Path of an Ultrasonic Beam2.10.2.4 Scattering from an Elastic Isotropic Sphere in a Homogeneous Medium2.10.2.5 Numerical Techniques to Study Wave Propagation and Scattering2.10.2.6 Scattering in Practice2.10.3 Attenuation Due to Hysteresis2.10.4 Attenuation Due to Other Mechanisms2.10.5 Measurement System Models2.10.5.1 Resolution2.10.5.2 Signal-to-Noise and Measurement Window2.11 Relaxation2.12 High-Power Phenomena2.12.1 CavitationReferences

Chapter 3 Fundamental Equations Employed in Ultrasonic Design and Applications
3.1 Introduction3.2 Simple Spring–Mass Oscillator3.2.1 Ideal Condition—Simple Harmonic Motion3.2.2 Real Condition—Damped Simple Harmonic Motion3.2.3 Effect of Damping on Phase Relationships—The Forced Oscillator3.3 Wave Equations3.3.1 Plane-Wave Equation3.3.2 General Wave Equation3.4 Solution of the Plane-Wave Equation, Linear System3.4.1 General Solution3.4.2 Free-Free Longitudinally Vibrating Uniform Bar3.4.3 Stress in a Vibrating Uniform Bar3.4.4 Mechanical Impedance3.4.5 Quality Factor (Q)3.5 Transverse-Wave Equation3.6 Solution of the Transverse-Wave Equation3.6.1 Clamped-Free Uniform Bar3.6.2 Free-Free Bar (Bar Free at Both Ends)3.6.3 Clamped-Clamped Bar (Bar Clamped at Both Ends)3.6.4 Effect of Geometry on Transverse Vibrations of Bars3.7 Plate Waves3.7.1 General3.7.2 Lamb Waves3.7.3 Rayleigh Waves3.7.4 Flexural Plates3.7.4.1 Rectangular Plate with Simply Supported Edges3.7.4.2 Free Circular Plate3.7.4.3 Circular Plate with Its Center Fixed3.7.4.4 Finite Exciting Sources (Transducers)References
Chapter 4 Design of Ultrasonic Horns for High Power Applications
4.1 Introduction4.2 Horn Equations4.3 Types of Horns4.3.1 Cylinder or Uniform Bar as an Ultrasonic Horn4.3.2 Stepped Horn (Double Cylinder)4.3.3 Exponentially Tapered Horn4.3.4 Wedge-Shaped Horns4.3.5 Conical Horns4.3.6 Catenoidal Horns4.4 Combining Sections of Different Configurations for Practical Applications4.5 Effect of Damping on the Operation of Horns4.6 Wide Horns and Horns of Large Cross Section4.6.1 Wide-Blade Type Horns4.6.2 Horns of Large Cross Section4.6.3 Rotating Hollow Horn4.7 Advanced Horn and System DesignReferences
Chapter 5 Basic Design of Ultrasonic Transducers
5.1 Introduction5.2 Equivalent Circuits5.3 Piezoelectric Transducers5.3.1 Equivalent Circuit of a Simple Piezoelectric Transducer5.3.2 Efficiency of a Simple Piezoelectric Transducer5.3.3 Maximum Power Transfer between Electronic Power Source and Simple Piezoelectric Transducers….5.3.4 Determining Transformation Factor (α) for the Piezoelectric Transducer Material5.3.5 Quality Factor (Q) of Piezoelectric Transducers5.3.6 KLM and Examples of Designs Using Transducer Model5.3.7 Piezoelectric Transducers for High-Intensity Applications5.3.8 Pulse-Type Transducers for Low-Intensity Applications Sensing5.3.9 Piezoelectric Polymers for Transducers5.3.10 Piezoelectric Materials and Their Properties5.4 Magnetostrictive Transducers5.4.1 Maximum Power Transfer to the Magnetostrictive Transducer5.4.2 Efficiency of the Magnetostrictive Transducer5.4.3 Magnetostrictive Transducers for High-Intensity Applications5.4.4 Giant Magnetostrictive Materials5.4.5 Comparative Properties between Selected Magnetostrictive Materials5.5 Electromagnetic Devices5.6 Pneumatic Devices (Whistles)5.6.1 Some Practical Applications of Pneumatic Whistles5.6.1.1 Coating Fine Particles5.6.1.2 Controlling Foam in Large Industrial Tanks for Liquids5.7 Mechanical Devices5.8 Some Special High-Frequency Transducers5.8.1 Electromagnetic Coupling5.8.2 Electrostatic Coupling5.8.3 Surface Acoustic Wave Devices5.8.4 Resistive Layer Transducers5.8.5 Laser Ultrasonics5.8.6 Ultrasonic Arrays5.9 Transducer-Generated Wave Fields5.10 General RemarksReferences
Chapter 6 Determining Properties of Materials
6.1 Introduction6.2 Approximate Methods for Measurement of Velocity and Attenuation6.2.1 Measurement of Velocity and Attenuation in Isotropic Solids6.2.2 Measurement of Velocity and Attenuation in Fluids6.3 Methods of Measuring Velocity of Sound6.3.1 Interferometer Method6.3.2 Resonance Method6.3.3 “Sing-Around” Method6.3.4 Pulse-Superposition Method6.3.5 Pulse-Echo-Overlap Method6.3.6 Measurements in Materials of High Attenuation6.3.7 Measurements at High Temperatures6.3.8 Measurements at High Pressures6.3.9 Water and Other Reference Materials6.4 Low-Frequency Measurements of Elastic Moduli and Poisson’s Ratio6.4.1 Measuring Flexural and Longitudinal Resonant Frequencies of Bars6.4.2 Measuring Torsional Resonant Frequencies of Isotropic Bars6.4.3 Determining Poisson’s Ratio, Young’s Modulus, and Shear Modulus from Flexural and Torsional Resonance Data6.5 Density, Viscosity and Particle Size Measurements6.5.1 Ultrasonic Device for Quantitative Density Measurements of Slurries6.5.2 Viscosity Measurements by Ultrasonics6.5.3 Ultrasonic Diffraction Grating Spectroscopy for Particle Size and Viscosity6.5.4 Particle Size in Emulsions, Colloids, and Slurries6.6 Determining Properties of Plastics and High Polymers6.7 General Comments on Measuring Acoustical Properties of MaterialsReferences
Chapter 7 Nondestructive Testing: Basic Methods and General Considerations
7.1 Introduction7.2 Basic Methods7.2.1 Resonance Methods7.2.2 Pulse Methods7.2.3 Acoustic Emission Technique7.3 Factors Affecting Resolution and Sensitivity7.3.1 Near-Field Effects7.3.2 Properties of the Materials7.4 Unconventional Techniques Used for Nondestructive Testing7.4.1 Eddy Sonic Inspection Method7.4.2 Sonic Analysis7.4.3 Acoustic Impact Technique7.4.4 Ultrasonic Spectroscopy7.4.5 Critical Angle Analysis7.5 Instrumentation7.5.1 Coupling Energy to the Test Object7.5.2 Resonance Methods7.5.2.1 Transducers7.5.2.2 Data Recording7.5.3 Pulse Methods7.5.3.1 Transducers7.5.3.2 Data Recording7.5.4 Acoustic Emission Methods7.5.5 Phased Arrays Systems7.5.6 Some Specialized Equipment7.5.7 Commonly Used Specifications and Standards7.5.7.1 Standards for Ultrasonic Inspection7.5.7.2 Methods Used to Determine Flaw SizeReferences
Chapter 8 Use of Ultrasonics in the Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation of Metals
8.1 Introduction8.2 Internal Structure of Metals8.2.1 Material Evaluation Based on Velocity and Attenuation of Ultrasound8.2.2 Surface Hardness Measurements8.2.3 Evaluation of Sintered Products8.2.4 Elastic and Anelastic Asymmetry of Metals and Acoustic Measurement of Residual Stress8.2.5 Fatigue, Aging, and Monitoring for Metals8.3 Inspection of Basic Structures and Products8.3.1 Welds8.3.2 Tubes, Pipes, and Shells8.3.2.1 Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Structural Integrity of Underground Pipelines8.3.3 Plates and Strips8.3.4 Forgings8.3.5 Bearings and Bearing Materials8.3.6 Castings8.3.7 Rails8.3.8 Wires8.3.9 Rivets8.4 Inspection of Hot Metals8.4.1 Hot Steel8.4.2 Following the Liquid–Solid Interface During Cooling of Ingots8.5 Determination of Bond Integrity8.6 Thickness Measurements8.7 Inspection of Solder Joints8.7.1 Acoustic Microscopy8.8 In-Service Inspection of Nuclear ReactorsReferences
Chapter 9 Use of Ultrasonics in the Inspection and Characterization of Nonmetals
9.1 Introduction9.2 Concrete9.3 Ceramics and Ceramic Coatings9.4 Timber, Wood, and Wood Composites9.5 Paper9.6 Leather9.7 Plastics, Polymers, and Composites9.7.1 Inspection of Fibrous-Bonded Composites9.7.2 Tires9.7.3 Polymer Membranes9.7.4 Energetic Materials and Solid Rocket Motors9.7.5 Low Density Foams (Aerogel)9.8 Adhesive Bond IntegrityReferences
Chapter 10 Imaging, Process Control, and Miscellaneous Low-Intensity Applications
10.1 Introduction10.2 Ultrasonic Imaging10.2.1 Historical Background10.2.2 Electron Acoustic Image Converter10.2.3 Schlieren Imaging10.2.4 Liquid Levitation Imaging10.2.5 Ultrasonic Imaging with Liquid Crystals10.2.6 Photographic Methods of Imaging by Ultrasonics….41710.2.7 Ultrasonic Holography10.2.8 Acoustic Microscopy10.2.9 Ultrasonic Arrays10.2.10 Applications of Ultrasonic Imaging10.3 Process Monitoring, Measurement, and Control10.3.1 Ultrasound in Process Industries10.3.2 Ultrasonic Systems and Measurements10.3.3 Velocity and Attenuation Measurement to Characterize Media and Monitor Processes10.3.4 Monitoring Solidification (Interface Sensing)10.3.5 Acoustic Time Domain Reflectometry10.3.6 Three-Phase Reactors10.3.7 Process Tomography Using Ultrasonic Methods10.3.8 Ultrasonic Transducers: Process Industry Applications10.3.9 Density Measurement10.3.10 Ultrasonic Characterization of Multiphase Fluids and Flow10.3.10.1 Slurry Particle Size and Concentration10.3.10.2 Ultrasonic Device for Empirical Measurements of Slurry Concentration10.3.10.3 Measurement of Viscosity Using Ultrasonic Reflection Techniques10.3.10.4 Ultrasonic Diffraction Grating Spectroscopy for Particle Size and Viscosity in Slurries10.3.10.5 Ultrasonic Backscatter Measurement for Slurry Concentration and Phase Changes10.3.11 Fluid Flow Measurement, Velocity Profiles, and Rheology10.3.11.1 Velocity Profiles and Rheology10.3.11.2 Ultrasonic Liquid-Level Methodology…44610.3.11.3 Multiphase Flow “Visualization”10.3.12 Pressure and Temperature10.4 Underwater Applications10.5 Surface Acoustic Wave Sensors and Delay Lines10.6 Application in GasesReferences
Chapter 11 Applications of High-Intensity Ultrasonics: Basic Mechanisms and Effects
11.1 Introduction11.2 General Discussion11.2.1 Energy and Energy Conversion11.2.2 Interaction Zones11.3 Mechanical Effects11.3.1 Cavitation11.3.2 Dispersions, Homogenization, and Emulsification11.3.3 Agglomeration and Flocculation11.3.4 Precipitates and Sols11.3.5 Enhancement of Heat Transfer11.3.6 Diffusion through Membranes11.4 Chemical Effects: Sonochemistry11.4.1 Depolymerization11.4.2 Polymerization11.4.3 Catalysis11.4.4 Precipitation11.4.5 Metals11.4.6 Crystallization11.4.7 Sonoluminescence11.5 Metallurgical EffectsReferences
Chapter 12 Applications of High-Intensity Ultrasonics Based on Mechanical Effects
12.1 Introduction12.2 Cleaning12.2.1 Principles of Ultrasonic Cleaning12.2.2 Factors That Affect the Cleaning Operation12.2.3 Types of Ultrasonic Cleaners12.2.4 Electronic Generators for Ultrasonic Cleaners12.2.5 Choice of Ultrasonic Cleaning Fluids12.2.6 Procedures for Ultrasonic Cleaning12.2.7 Methods of Evaluating Ultrasonic Cleaners12.3 Machining, Forming, and Joining12.3.1 Machining12.3.2 Metal Forming12.3.3 Accelerated Fatigue Testing12.3.4 Deburring12.3.5 Compaction of Powder Metals and Similar Materials12.3.6 Soldering12.3.7 Welding12.3.7.1 Welding Metals12.3.7.2 Welding Thermoplastic Materials12.4 Liquid Atomization and Droplet Formation12.5 Agglomeration and Flocculation12.5.1 Agglomeration12.5.2 Standing Wave Separators12.5.3 Flocculation12.6 Drying and Dewatering12.6.1 Acoustical Drying12.6.2 Electroacoustic Dewatering12.7 Agricultural Applications12.7.1 Tomato Pollination12.7.2 Germination of Seeds12.8 Pest Control12.9 Control of Foams12.10 Coating Materials and Particles12.11 Preparation of Carbon Spheres12.12 Glassware Testing12.13 Dispersions and De-Agglomeration12.13.1 Dyes and Pigments12.13.2 Preparation of Specimens for Study under Electron Microscopes12.13.3 Preparation of Soil Samples for Analysis12.13.4 Dispersion of Clay Suspensions12.13.5 Dispersion of Chlorinated Pesticides and Other Solutions12.13.6 Emulsification of Flotation Agents12.13.7 Dispersion of Sodium in Hydrocarbons12.13.8 Dispersion of Heterogeneous Phases in Molten MetalsReferences
Chapter 13 Applications of Ultrasonics Based on Chemical Effects—Sonochemistry
13.1 Introduction13.2 Sonochemistry13.3 Industrial Processes13.3.1 Accelerated Etching13.3.2 Treating Beverages, Juices, and Essential Oils13.3.3 Treatment of Sewage13.3.4 Extraction Processes13.3.5 Demulsification of Crude Petroleum13.4 Miscellaneous Chemical Effects and Applications13.5 Electrolysis and Electroplating13.6 Preparation of NanomaterialsReferences
Chapter 14 Medical Applications of Ultrasonic Energy
14.1 Introduction14.2 Power Measurements and Dosages14.3 Basic Mechanisms and Principles14.3.1 Mechanisms14.3.2 Effect on Human Blood14.3.3 Effect on Tissue Regeneration14.4 Diagnosis14.4.1 Principles14.4.2 Equipment14.4.3 Ultrasonic Contrast Agents14.4.4 Diagnosis by Reflection Methods14.4.4.1 Abdomen and Uterus14.4.4.2 Neurology14.4.4.3 Abdominal—Liver14.4.4.4 Ophthalmology14.4.4.5 Three-Dimensional Ultrasound14.4.4.6 Cardiac14.4.4.7 Tomography and Holography14.4.4.8 Miscellaneous14.4.5 Diagnosis by Doppler Methods14.5 Therapy14.5.1 Equipment14.5.2 Physical Therapy14.5.2.1 Rheumatic and Related Disorders14.5.3 Sonicated Drug Delivery14.5.3.1 Phonophoresis14.5.3.2 Diffusion of Subcutaneous Injections.…14.5.3.3 Blood-Brain Barrier14.5.3.4 Ultrasonic Gene and Drug Delivery and Activation14.5.4 Miscellaneous Medical Therapy Applications of Ultrasound14.5.4.1 Ophthalmic Therapy14.5.4.2 Effects on Paced Hearts14.6 Surgery14.6.1 Equipment14.6.2 High-Intensity Focused Ultrasound— Hyperthermia14.6.2.1 Cancer14.6.2.2 Neurosonic Surgery14.6.2.3 Applications of Hyperthermia14.6.3 Shock Wave Lithotripsy14.6.4 Tissue Dissection and Ablation14.6.4.1 Phacoemulsification14.6.4.2 Ultrasonic Surgery Using Tissue Fragmentation14.6.4.3 Ultrasonic-Assisted Lipoplasty14.6.4.4 Ultrasonic Scalpels14.6.4.5 Intravascular Surgery (Thrombolysis)14.6.4.6 Physics of Tissue Dissection and Ablation14.6.5 Ultrasound in Dentistry14.6.6 Selected Other Ultrasonic Surgical Procedures14.6.6.1 Laryngeal Papillomatosis14.6.6.2 Meniere’s Disease14.6.6.3 Stapedectomy14.6.6.4 Selective Hypophysectomy14.7 Tissue Characterization14.8 High-Frequency Imaging/Acoustic Microscopy14.9 Ancillary Application of Biomedical and Research Applications14.9.1 Cell and Spore DisruptionReferences
Glossary
Appendix A
Appendix B

Content preview from Ultrasonics, 3rd Edition

2.10.1 ATTENUATION DUE TO BEAM SPREADING

If a spherical wave front of uniform intensity (Figure 2.27) suffers no loss in traveling from its source, the total energy (P_T) at each spherical surface of total area S at distance r from the center of the source is always

$eq167.jpg$

where I_r is the intensity at distance r and S_r is the total area of a sphere or segment of the sphere through which the total energy P_T passes.

The area of a sphere is 4πr². Let r₁ and r₂ correspond to the radii of two concentric spheres containing a point source at their centers radiating a total energy P_T. If there are no losses, the total energy passing through S₁ corresponding to r₁ is equal to that through S₂ corresponding to r₂. From Equation 2.104

$eq168.jpg$

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Ultrasonics, 3rd Edition

by Dale Ensminger, Leonard J. Bond

2.10.1 ATTENUATION DUE TO BEAM SPREADING

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