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A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India |for UPSC | Civil Services Exam | State Administrative exams | Stone Age to the 12th Century | by Upinder Singh, 2nd Edition

by Upinder Singh

January 2024

Intermediate to advanced

856 pages

45h 1m

English

Pearson India

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Cover Page
About Pearson
Title Page
Dedication
Brief Contents
Contents
Photographs
Maps
Figures
Preface to the Second Edition

Acknowledgements to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgements to the First Edition
A Reader’s Guide
Introduction: Ideas of the Early Indian Past
The Main Physiographic Zones of the SubcontinentWays of Dividing the Indian PastChanging Interpretations of Early Indian HistoryNew Histories, Unwritten Histories
Chapter 1: Understanding Sources
Reading Ancient Texts from a Historical Point of ViewAncient palm leaf manuscriptsThe classification of textual sources: language, genre, and contentThe VedasThe two Sanskrit epics: the Mahabharata and the RamayanaArchaeology and the MahabharataThe PuranasDharmashastraTheory and practice in the DharmashastraBuddhist textsSongs of Buddhist nunsJaina textsSangam literature and later Tamil worksThe stories of the two Tamil epicsEarly Kannada and Telugu textsOther ancient texts, biographies, and historiesBanabhatta and his royal biographyThe nature of ancient indian historical traditionsAccounts of India from outside the subcontinentAl-Biruni on the writing of the HindusArchaeology and the Early Indian PastLetters from Alexander Cunningham to J. D. M. BeglarH. D. Sankalia: Born for archaeologyScientific techniques in archaeologyRadiocarbon datingInterpreting archaeological evidenceEthno-archaeologyThe social and cultural aspects of technologyProtecting sitesEpigraphy: The Study of InscriptionsAncient and early medieval scriptsDeciphered and undeciphered scriptsLanguages of ancient and early medieval inscriptionsDating the inscriptionsHow to convert ancient era dates into modern onesThe classification of inscriptionsMemorializing death in stoneInscriptions as a source of historyAn ancient theatre, an ancient love storyNumismatics: The Study of CoinsA brief history of indian coinageCoins as a source of historyCounter-struck coins of the Kshatrapas and SatavahanasVisual SourcesConclusionsFurther Readings
Chapter 2: Hunter-Gatherers of the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic
The Geological Ages and Hominin EvolutionWhat does it mean to be human?Hominin Remains in the Indian SubcontinentPalaeo-EnvironmentsClassifying the Indian Stone AgeThe PalaeolithicLower palaeolithic sitesTypical lower palaeolithic toolsIsampur: a centre of stone tool manufactureMiddle palaeolithic sitesAttirampakkamThe Levallois techniqueUpper palaeolithic sitesUpper palaeolithic toolsPalaeolithic art and cultsOstrich eggshell beadsThe life-ways of palaeolithic hunter-gatherersFood resources—now and thenThe MesolithicMesolithic sitesMicrolithsAnimal bones at mesolithic sitesGraves, subsistence, and settlement patternsThe journey to get chalcedonyPrehistoric hunter-gatherers in the Sri Lankan rain forestsThe magnificence of mesolithic artConclusionsFurther Readings
Chapter 3: The Transition to Food Production: Neolithic, Neolithic–Chalcolithic, and Chalcolithic Villages, c. 7000–2000 BCE
The Neolithic Age and the Beginnings of Food ProductionWhy Domestication?The Identification of Domestication and Food Production in the Archaeological RecordThe analysis of ancient plant remainsThe Transition to Food Production in the Indian SubcontinentThe earliest village settlements, c. 7000–3000 BCEThe north-westThe Vindhyan fringes, middle Ganga plains, and other areasPlant and animal remains from neolithic LahuradevaNeolithic, neolithic–chalcolithic, and chalcolithic communities, c. 3000–2000 bceThe north and north-westDid people actually live in the Burzahom pits?RajasthanThe Malwa regionThe western DeccanThe middle Ganga plain and eastern IndiaSouth IndiaThe mystery of the ash moundsCommunity feasting at neolithic BudihalThe Life of Early FarmersChanges in Cultic and Belief SystemsFemale figurines—ordinary women or goddesses?ConclusionsFurther Readings
Chapter 4: The Harappan Civilization, c. 2600–1900 BCE
Civilization and Urbanization: Definitions and ImplicationsThe 10 characteristics of cities, according to ChildeRecent Discoveries and Changing PerspectivesHarappan, Indus, or Sindhu–Sarasvati Civilization?Origin: The Significance of the Early Harappan PhaseThe Relationship Between the Early and Mature Harappan PhasesThe General Features of Mature Harappan SettlementsProfiles of Some Harappan Cities, Towns, and VillagesThe Diversity of the Harappan Subsistence BaseThe rhinoceros and the HarappansAnimal bones at ShikarpurHarappan Crafts and TechniquesSculpture in stone and metalThe making of long carnelian beadsNetworks of TradeSources of the stone and mineral artefacts found at HarappaShortughai—a Harappan trading post in AfghanistanThe Nature and Uses of WritingReligious and Funerary PracticesMan, god, or goddess?The ‘fire altars’The Harappan PeopleHow healthy were the Harappans?What exactly did the Harappans eat?The Ruling EliteDefining a stateA priest-king?The Decline of Urban LifeThe Significance of the Late Harappan PhaseConclusionsFurther ReadingsWebsites
Chapter 5: Cultural Transitions: Images from Texts and Archaeology, c. 2000–600 bce
Perspectives from TextsUsing the vedas as a historical sourceWho were the Indo-Aryans?The culture reflected in the family books of the Rig Veda SamhitaTribes and warsThe Hymn to arms (Rig Veda Samhita 6.75)Lineage, clan, tribePastoralism, agriculture, and other occupationsVarna in the Rig VedaWomen, men, and the householdThe family and the householdReligion: sacrifices to the godsHymn to Indra (Rig Veda 2.12)The soma plant and its juiceThe historical milieu of later vedic textsAspects of everyday lifeThe emergence of monarchyThe invention of the war elephantThe ceremony of the jewel offeringThe varna hierarchyThe Purusha-sukta (Rig Veda 10.90)Gender and the householdReligion, ritual, and philosophyCreation (Rig Veda 10.129)The sacrificial arenaThe atman, according to Uddalaka AruniPopular beliefs and practicesAtharva Veda spellsScience and mathematics in Vedic textsArchaeological Profiles of Different Regions of the Subcontinent, c. 2000–500 BCENeolithic–chalcolithic and chalcolithic culturesThe north-west and northMythological motifs on Cemetery-H potteryThe Indo-Gangetic divide, the upper Ganga valley, and the doabThe Sanauli cemeteryThe enigma of copper anthropomorphsBlack and Red Ware
Western India
The middle Ganga valleyEastern IndiaThe North-eastEarly agriculture in NagalandThe cultural sequence in central IndiaThe chalcolithic farmers of the DeccanThe Daimabad bronzesFood, nutrition, and health among the people of InamgaonGoddesses with and without headsNeolithic–chalcolithic sites of South IndiaImages and soundscapes in neolithic rock artSanganakalluFrom copper to iron: early iron age cultures of the subcontinentA clarification about the Indian megalithsThe north-westMegaliths in the north-eastLiving megalithism, landscapes, and memoryThe Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga valley: the Painted Grey Ware culturePainted Grey WareThe evidence from RajasthanThe middle and lower Ganga valleyCentral IndiaThe DeccanSouth IndiaThe enigma of the megalithic anthropomorphsFrom the neolithic to the iron age at KadebakaleThe impact of iron technologyThe Problem of Correlating Textual and Archaeological EvidenceConclusionsFurther Readings
Chapter 6: Cities, Kings, and Renunciants: North India, c. 600–200 bce
The Sources: Textual and ArchaeologicalPanini and his AshtadhyayiNorthern Black Polished WareThe 16 Great StatesThe state and violenceThe identification of TaxilaThe Ganas or SanghasThe conflict between the Sakyas and KosalansVassakara seeks the Buddha’s advice on how to defeat the VajjisThe Forest TribesPolitical Conflicts and the Growth of the Magadhan EmpireAjatashatru’s visit to the BuddhaThe Persian and Macedonian InvasionsThe storming of the Malla citadelLand and Agrarian ExpansionArchaeological and Textual Profiles of Early Historic CitiesThe North and North-westSite catchment analysis of SemthanThe Indo-Gangetic divide, the upper Ganga valley, and the doabThe middle and lower Ganga valleyCentral India and the DeccanSri Lanka and South IndiaUrban Occupations, Crafts, Guilds, and MoneyThe New Social Elites: The Gahapati and SetthiTrade and TradersClass, Kinship, Varna, and JatiActivities in times of adversityVarna and jatiGender, Family, and HouseholdMarriage, according to the GrihyasutrasThe Renunciatory TraditionThe Samannaphala SuttaThe Ajivikas
Early Buddhism
The life of the BuddhaThe Buddha’s teachingsThe analogy of the raftThe Buddhist sangha and the laityThe social implications of the Buddha’s teachingsThe Ambattha SuttaBuddhism and womenPatachara’s songThe eight conditions imposed on nunsThe seven kinds of wivesEarly JainismThe Jaina tirthankaras, Vardhamana MahaviraThe Jaina understanding of realityThe Jaina disciplineThe liberated manOn not killing earth bodiesThe social composition of the Jaina sangha and laityThe true BrahmanaMalli or Mallinatha?ConclusionsFurther Readings
Chapter 7: Power and Piety: The Maurya Empire, c. 324–187 bce
The Date of the ArthashastraThe Major Sources for the Maurya PeriodAshoka’s inscriptionsThe Mahasthan and Sohgaura inscriptionsThe categories of Ashokan inscriptions and their locationMegasthenes’ IndicaThe Greeks on MegasthenesArchaeological and numismatic evidenceThe message in the landscapeThe Maurya DynastyLegends of AshokaStone portraits of Ashoka at KanaganahalliTextual and Archaeological Profiles of SettlementsPataliputra and the palace, according to Arrian and AelianThe Nature and Structure of the Maurya EmpireThe life of a king, according to Megasthenes (via Strabo)Rock edict 6 (Girnar version)Ashoka and BuddhismMinor rock edict 1 (Rupnath version)Ashoka’s DhammaThe 5th pillar edict (Delhi–Topra pillar)The 13th rock edict (Shahbazgarhi version)Ashoka’s assessment of his success: the Shar-i-Kuna Greek–Aramaic inscriptionSculpture and ArchitectureAncient and modern quarries at ChunarThe medieval and modern histories of Ashokan pillarsAn Ashokan stupa at DeorkotharThe Parkham yaksha, then and nowThe Decline, Legacy, and Memory of the Maurya EmpireConclusionsFurther Readings
Chapter 8: Interaction and Innovation, c. 200 bce –300 ce
The Kautilyan StateThe NatyashastraThe Gatha SattasaiThe Political History of North IndiaThe ShungasThe Besnagar pillar inscription of HeliodorusThe Indo-GreeksCoins of the Indo-GreeksÄi Khanoum: A Hellenistic city in AfghanistanThe Indo-Scythians (Shakas) and Indo-Parthians (Pahlavas)The KushanasThe Rabatak inscriptionThe Shaka Kshatrapas of Western IndiaA lake, a storm, and a kingThe Mahameghavahanas in Eastern IndiaEpigraphic dialogue in the Hathigumpha inscriptionThe Satavahanas in the DeccanThe royal portrait gallery in the Naneghat caveKings and Chieftains in the Far South: The Cheras, Cholas, and PandyasThe royal drumTamil-Brahmi inscriptionsSri LankaVillages and CitiesPlant remains from SangholCities of the north-westThe Indo-Gangetic divide and the upper Ganga valleyFinding children in the archaeological recordThe middle and lower Ganga valley and eastern IndiaChandraketugarhCentral and western IndiaCities and towns of the Deccan and AndhraCities of the far southMadurai in the Maduraikkanchi
Crafts and Guilds
Guilds as bankersTrade and TradersAncient travellersLong-distance tradeKaveripattinam in the PattinapalaiTrade with East and South-east AsiaTrade with the Mediterranean regionPeriplus Maris Erythraei (The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea)Dramatic discoveries in Hoq cave, SocotraA Greek play set on the Malabar coastExcavations at ArikameduPattanam: the ancient Muziris?The wider roles of trade and tradersAspects of Social Change in North India and the DeccanThe Jatakas as a source of social historySociety in Early Historic South IndiaAn ancient Tamil love poemA heroic deathPhilosophical DevelopmentsThe Bhagavad Gita
Looking at the History of Religions Beyond the Framework of ‘Isms’
The worship of yakshas and yakshis, nagas and nagisGoddesses, ‘votive’ tanks, and shrinesVedic ritualsPuranic hinduismShaivismThe formation of the Vaishnava pantheonKrishna and Balarama on Agathocles’ coinsShakti worshipThe emergence of Mahayana BuddhismMonastic and lay practices in texts versus inscriptionsBuddhism in Sri LankaThe Digambara–shvetambara schism in JainismReligious Architecture and SculptureEarly Hindu temples and sculptureBuddhist architecture and sculptureThe Modern Histories of Ancient Buddhist RelicsStupa-monasteries of the north-westCentral Indian stupas—Sanchi and BharhutStupas of South India and Sri LankaSatavahana Kings in Kanaganahalli SculpturesEarly relief sculpture at Buddhist sitesBuddhist caves in the Western GhatsJaina and Buddhist remains in eastern IndiaThe Gandhara school of sculptureEarly stone sculptures from Vidisha and MathuraTerracotta artThe patronage of religious establishmentsGifts of water pots from ancient GandharaThe Archaeology of ForestsConclusionsFurther Readings
Chapter 9: Aesthetics and Empire, c. 300–600 ce
Faxian’s Fuguo jiPolitical HistoryThe Gupta dynastyRamagupta—did he exist?The inscription of Chandra and the legend of the unsteady pillarThe Vakatakas of the DeccanA queen’s grantMansarOther contemporary dynastiesThe Royal Ideology and Administration of the Gupta and Vakataka KingdomsThe Varaha relief at UdayagiriAn ancient panchayat?Revenue Resources of StatesLand OwnershipTypes of Land, Land Measures, and Land TenureRoyal Land GrantsThe terms of the Vakataka grantsPatterns of Urban HistoryThe lifestyle of the nagarakaCraft Production, Guilds, and TradeSanskrit inscriptions at Vo-canh and KuteiAspects of Social Structure: Gender, Forms of Labour, Slavery, and Untouchability
Patterns of Religious Developments
Hari-Hara in the Badami cavesThe emergence of TantraThe evolution of the Vaishnava pantheonShaivismMahadeva in the Elephanta caveThe worship of the great goddessThe worship of other deitiesBuddhismKumarajiva (343–413 ce)JainismA Classical Age of Art?Developments in architectureSculptureThe Sigiriya paintings and the poems on the Mirror WallVakataka sculptureTextual ProductionThe cloud messengerTeaching politics through animal storiesAstronomy and MathematicsAncient mathematical and medical manuscriptsMedical KnowledgeThe ideal hospital, according to CharakaThe Bower ManuscriptConclusionsFurther Readings
Chapter 10: Emerging Regional Configurations, c. 600–1200 CE
Textual and Archaeological SourcesKshemendra’s satiresKamban’s IramavataramWang Xuance’s missions to IndiaPolitical Structure and Political NarrativeThe image of the ideal king in inscriptions of OdishaThe DeccanThe Aihole inscription of PulakeshinBetel-bag bearers in royal courtsThe far southThe Chola expedition against SrivijayaReligious and political symbolism in the Thanjavur templeNorth India: the Pushyabhutis, HarshvardhanaThe life and travels of XuanzangEastern IndiaSome origin myths of the dynasties of OdishaThe Rajput clansThe Tomaras and Delhi in legends and inscriptionsKashmir and the north-westDiddaRoyal Land GrantsBrahmana beneficiariesThe nature of Brahmadeya settlements Kara-shasanas and kraya-shasanasThe impact of Brahmana settlements on agrarian relationsLand grants as part of larger social and cultural processes
Rural Society
Popular agricultural sayings of early medieval BengalUrban ProcessesHistorical Processes in South IndiaThe nature of south Indian statesThe segmentary state, according to Southall and SteinAdministrative structuresRural societyThe history of a Karnataka villageAgriculture and irrigationIrrigation devices in early medieval Tamil NaduUrban processesWeavers and weaving in early medieval Tamil NaduTrade and tradersGifts by South-east Asian rulers at Nalanda, Nagapattinam, and Bodh GayaAihole and Ayyavole
The Religious Sphere
Buddhism in early medieval IndiaA letter from Xuanzang to PrajnadevaRatnagiriTaraThe Buddhist heritage of the MaldivesMajor centres of JainismThe colossal image of Gommateshvara at Sravana BelagolaRitual death in the Jaina traditionJainism in the religious landscape of MathuraShankara and Advaita VedantaThe Hagiographies of ShankaraThe Hindu SectsVaishnavism and ShaivismThe ‘Durga’ temple at AiholeThe worship of the great goddessThe Goddess as slayer of the demon MahishaSouth Indian bhakti: the Alvars and NayanmarsSongs of the Nayanmar saint ApparAndal’s songsKaraikkal Ammaiyar—her life and songsThe philosophical underpinnings of South indian bhakti and later developmentsThe vachanas of BasavannaInter-religious dynamicsPatronage to templesTemple women in Chola inscriptionsIslam and Muslim communitiesArchitecture and SculptureThe Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara styles of temple architectureThe sacred geography of JageshwarWestern India and the DeccanArtists’ signatures at PattadakalThe Pallava kingdomPlayful Ambiguity and political authority in the Mamallapuram reliefThe Chola templesChola metal sculptureArchaeometric analysis of Nataraja imagesEarly mosques in the subcontinentMosques in Sindh and the Swat valleyConclusionsFurther Readings
A Note on Diacritics
Glossary
References
Index
Credits
Copyright

The Religious Sphere

Religious developments in early medieval India show continuities as well as changes compared with the preceding centuries and can be reconstructed on the basis of religious texts, inscriptions, architecture, and sculptural remains. At the level of popular worship, the focus was on devotional worship in temples and on pilgrimage. The Hindu sects, especially those associated with the worship of Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti, became increasingly popular. The Tantric tradition became stronger and exerted its influence over Hindu, Buddhist and, to a lesser extent, Jaina traditions. While the Hindu sects were fairly widespread throughout the subcontinent, Buddhist and Jaina sects had a more restricted provenance. Jainism held sway ...

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