book

Generation and Utilization of Electrical Energy

by S. Sivanagaraju, M. Balasubba Reddy, D. Srilatha

June 2010

Intermediate to advanced

582 pages

15h 31m

English

Pearson India

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1.1 Introduction1.2 Hydropower Generation1.2.1 Hydrology1.2.2 Stream flow, hydrographs, and flow–duration curves stream flow1.2.3 Hydrographs1.2.4 Mass curve1.2.5 Advantages and disadvantages of hydroelectric plants1.2.6 Selection of site for hydroelectric plants1.2.7 Water power equation1.2.8 Classification of hydroelectric plants1.2.9 Function of the various components in a hydroelectric generation system1.2.10 Location of a hydroelectric station1.2.11 Working principle of a hydroelectric plant1.3 Thermal Power Stations1.3.1 Principle of working of a thermal power station1.3.2 Factors to be considered for locating a thermal plant1.3.3 Schematic diagram of thermal power station1.3.4 One-line diagram of thermal station indicating the various circuits1.3.5 Types of boilers1.3.6 Methods of firing boilers1.3.7 Furnaces1.3.8 Superheaters and reheaters1.3.9 Steam turbines1.3.10 Condensers1.3.11 Cooling towers1.3.12 Chimneys1.4 Nuclear Power Generation1.4.1 Working principle of a nuclear power station1.4.2 Advantages and disadvantages of nuclear power plants1.4.3 Location of nuclear power station1.4.4 Energy–mass relationship: Einstein's law1.4.5 Mass defect and binding energy1.4.6 Nuclear reaction1.4.7 Nuclear fission1.4.8 Nuclear chain reaction1.4.9 Main parts of a nuclear rector and their function1.4.10 Fuel materials for nuclear reactors (nuclear fuels)1.4.11 Control of nuclear reactors1.4.12 Classification of nuclear reactors1.4.13 Commercial types of reactors1.4.14 Boiling water reactor (BWR)1.4.15 Gas-cooled reactor1.4.16 Radiation1.4.17 Types of radiations1.4.18 Radiation hazards1.4.19 Shielding1.5 Gas Power Generation1.5.1 A simple gas turbine power plant1.5.2 Applications of gas turbine plants1.5.3 Advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine plants1.6 Diesel Power Generation1.6.1 Diesel engine power plant1.6.2 Site selection for diesel power plants1.6.3 Applications of diesel engine power plants1.6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of diesel power plantsKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsAnswers
2.1 Introduction2.2 Generation of Electrical Power by Non-conventional Methods2.3 Solar Energy2.3.1 Solar energy collector2.4 Point-focusing Collector2.4.1 Photovoltaic cells or solar cells2.4.2 Solar cell characteristics2.4.3 Solar power generation2.4.4 Advantages and disadvantages of solar power2.4.5 Applications of solar energy2.5 Wind Energy2.5.1 Basic principle of wind energy conversion2.5.2 Basic components of wind energy conversion plant2.5.3 Types of wind mills2.5.4 Site selection for wind energy conversion plant2.5.5 Wind power generation2.5.6 Advantages and disadvantages of wind power2.5.7 Applications of wind energy2.6 Tidal Power2.6.1 Components of tidal power plant2.6.2 Site selection of tidal power plant2.6.3 Tidal power generation2.6.4 Advantages and disadvantages of tidal power2.7 Geothermal Power2.7.1 Geothermal resources2.7.2 Geothermal power generation2.7.3 Advantages and disadvantages of geothermal power2.7.4 Applications of geothermal energy2.8 Biomass and Biogas2.8.1 Biogas generation2.8.2 Site selection of biogas plant2.8.3 Advantages and disadvantages of biogas2.9 MHD Generations2.9.1 MHD generation2.9.2 Advantages and disadvantages of MHD power generationKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsAnswers
3.1 Introduction3.2 Load Curve3.2.1 Load duration curve3.2.2 Definition of terms and factors3.3 Cost of Electrical Energy3.3.1 Cost of generation station3.3.2 Annual cost3.3.3 Factors influencing the formulation of tariff3.3.4 Factors to be considered in fixing up the tariff3.3.5 Types of tariffs3.4 Need for Electrical Energy Conservation—Methods3.4.1 Energy efficient equipment3.4.2 Energy management3.4.3 Energy auditing3.5 Power Factor Improvement3.5.1 Causes of low power factor3.5.2 Effects or disadvantages of low power factor3.5.3 Advantages of power factor improvement3.5.4 Methods of improving power factor3.5.5 Most economical power factor when the kW demand is constant3.5.6 Most economical power factor when the kVA maximum demand is constant3.6 Concept of Distributed Generation3.7 Deregulation3.8 Need for Restructuring3.8.1 Motivation for restructuring the power industryKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsExercise ProblemsAnswers

4.1 Introduction4.2 Advantages of Electric Heating4.3 Modes of Transfer of Heat4.3.1 Conduction4.3.2 Convection4.3.3 Radiation4.4 Essential Requirements of Good Heating Element4.5 Material for Heating Elements4.6 Causes of Failure of Heating Elements4.6.1 Formation of hotspots4.6.2 Oxidation and intermittency of operation4.6.3 Embrittlement causing grain growth4.6.4 Contamination and corrosion4.7 Design of Heating Elements4.8 Methods of Electric Heating4.9 Resistance Heating4.9.1 Direct resistance heating4.9.2 Indirect resistance heating4.9.3 Infrared or radiant heating4.10 Temperature Control of Resistance Heating4.11 Arc Heating4.11.1 Electrodes used in the arc furnaces4.11.2 Types of arc furnaces4.11.3 Power supply and control of arc furnace4.12 High-frequency Heating4.13 Induction Heating4.13.1 Core type furnace4.13.2 Coreless type induction furnace4.14 Dielectric HeatingKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsExercise ProblemsAnswers
5.1 Introduction5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Welding5.3 Electric Welding5.4 Resistance Welding5.4.1 Types of resistance welding5.5 Choice of Welding Time5.6 Electric Arc Welding5.6.1 Carbon arc welding5.6.2 Metal arc welding5.6.3 Atomic hydrogen arc welding5.6.4 Inert gas metal arc welding5.7 Submerged Arc Welding5.8 Electron Beam Welding5.9 Laser Beam Welding5.10 Types of Welding Electrodes5.10.1 Non-consumable electrodes5.10.2 Consumable electrodes5.11 Comparison between Resistance and Arc Weldings5.12 Electric Welding Equipment5.12.1 Electric welding power sets5.12.2 Electrode holder5.12.3 Welding cables5.12.4 Chipping hammer and wire brush5.13 Comparison between AC and DC WeldingsKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsAnswers
6.1 Introduction6.1.1 Nature of light6.2 Terms Used in Illumination6.2.1 Radiant efficiency6.2.2 Plane angle6.2.3 Solid angle6.3 Laws of Illumination6.3.1 Inverse square law6.3.2 Lambert's cosine law6.4 Polar Curves6.4.1 Rousseau's construction6.5 Photometry6.5.1 Principle of simple photometer6.5.2 Photometer heads6.6 Photo Cells (for Photometric Measurements)6.6.1 Photo voltaic cell6.6.2 Photo emissive cell6.7 Integrating Sphere6.8 Sources of Light6.8.1 By temperature effect6.8.2 By establishing an arc between two electrodes6.8.3 Discharge lampsKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsExercise ProblemsAnswers
7.1 Introduction7.2 Types of Sources of Illumination7.2.1 Electric arc lamps7.2.2 Incandescent lamps7.2.3 Gaseous discharge lamps7.2.4 Fluorescent lamps7.3 Arc Lamps7.3.1 Carbon arc lamp7.3.2 Flame arc lamp7.3.3 Magnetic arc lamp7.4 Incandescent Lamp7.4.1 Choice of material for filament7.4.2 Comparisons of carbon, osmium, tantalum, and tungsten used for making the filament7.5 Discharge Lamps7.5.1 Types of discharge lamps7.5.2 Drawbacks7.6 Neon Discharge Lamp7.7 Sodium Vapor Lamp7.7.1 Working7.8 High-Pressure Mercury Vapor Lamp7.8.1 MA type lamp7.8.2 MAT type lamp7.8.3 MB type lamp7.9 Fluorescent Lamp (Low-pressure Mercury Vapor Lamp)7.9.1 Construction7.9.2 Working7.9.3 Startless fluorescent lamp7.9.4 Fluorescent lamp on DC supply7.10 Comparison between Tungsten Filament Lamps and Fluorescent Lamps7.11 Basic Principles of Light Control7.11.1 Reflection7.11.2 Refraction7.11.3 Diffusion7.11.4 Absorption7.12 Types of Lighting Schemes7.12.1 Direct lighting schemes7.12.2 Semidirect lighting schemes7.12.3 Indirect lighting schemes7.12.4 Semi-indirect lighting schemes7.12.5 General lighting scheme7.13 Design of Lighting Schemes7.13.1 Illumination level7.13.2 Size of the room7.13.3 Mounting height and space of fittings7.14 Street Lighting7.14.1 Diffusion principle7.14.2 Specular reflection principle7.14.3 Illumination level, mounting height, and the types of lamps for street lighting7.15 Factory Lighting7.16 Floodlighting7.16.1 Esthetic floodlighting7.16.2 Industrial and commercial floodlighting7.16.3 Advertising7.16.4 Floodlighting calculations7.17 Methods of Lighting Calculations7.17.1 Watts-per-square-meter method7.17.2 Lumen or light flux method7.17.3 Point-to-point or inverse square law methodKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsExercise ProblemsAnswers
8.1 Introduction8.2 Block Diagram of Electric Drive8.2.1 Source8.2.2 Power modulator8.2.3 Electrical motors8.2.4 Load8.2.5 Control unit8.2.6 Sensing unit8.3 Types of Electric Drives8.3.1 Group drives8.3.2 Individual drive8.3.3 Multi-motor drive8.4 Choice of Motors8.5 Characteristics of DC Motor8.5.1 Characteristics of shunt motor8.5.2 Characteristics of DC series motor8.5.3 Characteristics of DC compound wound motors8.6 Three-phase Induction Motor8.6.1 Torque equation8.6.2 Torque ratios8.6.3 Torque−speed and torque−slip characteristics8.7 Speed Control of DC Motors8.7.1 Speed control of DC shunt motors8.7.2 Speed control of DC series motor8.7.3 Ward–Leonard method of speed control8.8 Speed Control of Induction Motors8.8.1 From stator side8.8.2 From rotor side8.8.3 Stator side control8.8.4 Control on rotor side8.9 Rating of Motor8.9.1 Temperature raise of motor8.9.2 Cooling of motor8.10 Types of Loads8.10.1 Classification of loads with respect to time8.10.2 Classification of loads with respect to duty cycle8.11 Rating of Motor8.11.1 Equivalent current method8.11.2 Equivalent power method8.11.3 Equivalent torque method8.12 Load Equalization8.12.1 Function of flywheelKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsExercise ProblemsAnswers
9.1 Introduction9.1.1 Requirements of ideal traction system9.1.2 Advantages and disadvantages of electric traction9.2 Review of Existing Electric Traction System in India9.3 System of Traction9.3.1 Self-contained locomotives9.3.2 Petrol electric traction9.3.3 Battery drives9.3.4 Electric vehicles fed from distribution network9.4 System of Track Electrification9.4.1 DC system9.4.2 Single-phase AC system9.4.3 Three-phase AC system9.4.4 Composite system9.5 Comparison of DC and AC Tractions9.6 Special Features of Traction Motors9.6.1 Mechanical features9.6.2 Electrical features9.7 Traction Motors9.7.1 DC series motor9.7.2 DC shunt motor9.7.3 AC series motor9.7.4 Three-phase induction motor9.7.5 Linear induction motor9.7.6 Synchronous motor9.8 Braking9.8.1 Electric braking9.8.2 Mechanical braking9.9 Types of Electric Braking9.9.1 Plugging9.9.2 Rheostatic or dynamic braking9.9.3 Regenerative braking9.10 Traction Motor Control9.10.1 Control of DC motors9.10.2 Series–parallel control9.11 Over Head Equipment9.11.1 Current collectors9.11.2 Single catenary and compound catenary construction of railways9.12 Auxiliary Equipment9.12.1 Motor–generator set9.12.2 Battery9.12.3 Rectifier unit9.12.4 Transformer or autotransformer9.12.5 Driving axles and gear arrangements9.13 Transmission of Drive9.13.1 Gearless driveKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsAnswers
10.1 Introduction10.2 Types of Services10.2.1 Main line services10.2.2 Urban service10.2.3 Suburban service10.3 Speed–Time and Speed–Distance Curves for Different Services10.3.1 Speed–time curve for main line service10.3.2 Speed–time curve for suburban service10.3.3 Speed–time curve for urban or city service10.4 Some Definitions10.4.1 Crest speed10.4.2 Average speed10.4.3 Schedule speed10.4.4 Schedule time10.5 Factors Affecting the Schedule Speed of a Train10.5.1 Crest speed10.5.2 Duration of stops10.5.3 Distance between the stops10.5.4 Acceleration10.5.5 Breaking retardation10.6 Simplified Trapezoidal and Quadrilateral Speed Time Curves10.6.1 Analysis of trapezoidal speed–time curve10.6.2 Analysis of quadrilateral speed–time curve10.7 Tractive Effort (Ft)10.7.1 Mechanics of train movement10.7.2 Tractive effort required for propulsion of train10.7.3 Power output from the driving axle10.8 Specific Energy Consumption10.8.1 Determination of specific energy output from simplified speed–time curve10.8.2 Factors affecting the specific energy consumption10.9 Important Definitions10.9.1 Dead weight10.9.2 Accelerating weight10.9.3 Adhesive weight10.9.4 Coefficient of adhesion10.10 Calculation of Energy Returned to the Supply During Regenerative Braking10.10.1 Advantages of regenerative breaking10.10.2 DisadvantagesKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsExercise ProblemsAnswers
11.1 Introduction11.2 Principle of Electrolysis11.3 Laws of Electrolysis11.3.1 Faraday's first law11.3.2 Faraday's second law11.4 Various Terms Related to Electrolyte Process11.5 Applications of Electrolytic Process11.5.1 Manufacturers of chemicals11.5.2 Electro metallurgy11.5.3 Electrodeposition11.5.4 Electroplating11.5.5 Electrometallization11.5.6 Electropolishing11.5.7 Electrotyping11.5.8 Electroparting or electrostripping11.5.9 Anodizing11.6 Power Supply for Electrolytic ProcessKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsExercise ProblemsAnswers
12.1 Introduction12.2 Refrigeration12.3 Refrigerator12.4 Principle of Refrigerator12.5 Refrigerant12.6 Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle12.6.1 Evaporation12.6.2 Compression12.6.3 Condensation12.6.4 Pressure reduction12.7 Electrical Circuit of Refrigerator12.7.1 Lamp and switch12.7.2 Thermostat switch12.7.3 Thermal overload release12.7.4 Starting relay12.8 Common Faults in Refrigerator12.8.1 Fault in the starting relay12.8.2 Fault in capacitor12.8.3 Fault in thermostat12.9 Applications of Refrigeration12.10 Air-conditioning12.10.1 Temperature control12.10.2 Humidity control12.10.3 Air movement and circulation12.11 Electric Circuit of an Air-conditioner12.12 Summer Air-conditioning System12.13 Room Air-conditionersKey NotesShort Questions and AnswersMultiple-choice QuestionsReview QuestionsAnswers

Content preview from Generation and Utilization of Electrical Energy

Chapter 6 Fundamentals of Illumination

Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

understand the terms used in illumination
discuss the various laws of illumination
analyze of photometry for the measurement of candle power of a source

6.1 Introduction

Study of illumination engineering is necessary not only to understand the principles of light control as applied to interior lighting design such as domestic and factory lighting but also to understand outdoor applications such as highway lighting and flood lighting. Nowaday, the electrically produced light is preferred to the other source of illumination because of an account of its cleanliness, ease of control, steady light output, low cost, and reliability. The best illumination ...