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Power Vacuum Tubes Handbook, 3rd Edition

Name: Power Vacuum Tubes Handbook, 3rd Edition
Author: Jerry Whitaker
ISBN: 9781351833271

by Jerry Whitaker

December 2017

Intermediate to advanced

707 pages

19h 59m

English

CRC Press

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Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgment
Author
1 Power Vacuum Tube Applications
1.1 Introduction1.2 Vacuum Tube Development1.2.1 Pioneer Developers1.2.1.1 Radio Central1.2.1.2 WLW: The Nation's Station1.2.1.3 UHF: A New Technical Challenge1.2.1.4 Birth of the Klystron1.2.1.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance1.2.2 Transistor Is Born1.2.3 Satellite Technology1.2.4 Standardization1.2.5 Transmission Systems1.3 Vacuum Tube Applications1.3.1 Market Overview1.4 Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum1.4.1 Low Frequency: 30–300 kHz1.4.2 Medium Frequency: 300 kHz–3 MHz1.4.3 High Frequency: 3–30 MHz1.4.4 Very High Frequency: 30–300 MHz1.4.5 Ultrahigh Frequency: 300 MHz–3 GHz1.4.6 Superhigh Frequency: 3–30 GHz
2 Modulation Systems and Characteristics
2.1 Introduction2.2 Modulation Systems2.2.1 Principles of Resonance2.2.1.1 Series Resonant Circuits2.2.1.2 Parallel Resonant Circuits2.2.1.3 Cavity Resonators2.2.2 Frequency Sources2.2.2.1 Frequency Stabilization2.2.2.2 Equivalent Circuit of a Quartz Resonator2.2.2.3 Temperature Compensation2.2.2.4 Stress Compensation2.2.2.5 Aging Effects2.3 Operating Class2.3.1 Operating Efficiency2.3.2 Broadband Amplifier Design2.3.2.1 Stagger Tuning2.3.2.2 Matching Circuits2.3.2.3 Power Combining2.4 Thermal and Circuit Noise2.4.1 Thermal Noise2.4.2 Noise in Systems of Cascaded Stages2.5 Amplitude Modulation2.5.1 High-Level AM Modulation2.5.2 Vestigial-Sideband Amplitude Modulation2.5.3 Single-Sideband Amplitude Modulation2.5.4 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation2.6 Frequency Modulation2.6.1 Modulation Index2.6.2 Phase Modulation2.6.3 Modifying FM Waves2.6.4 Preemphasis and De-Emphasis2.6.5 Modulation Circuits2.6.5.1 Direct-FM Modulator2.6.5.2 VCO Direct-FM Modulator2.6.6 FM Power Amplifiers2.7 Pulse Modulation2.7.1 Digital Modulation Systems2.7.2 Pulse Amplitude Modulation2.7.3 Pulse Time Modulation2.7.4 Pulse Code Modulation2.7.5 Delta Modulation2.7.6 Digital Coding Systems2.7.7 Baseband Digital Pulse Modulation2.8 Spread Spectrum Systems
3 Vacuum Tube Principles
3.1 Introduction3.2 Characteristics of Electrons3.2.1 Electron Optics3.2.2 Magnetic Field Effects3.2.3 Thermal Emission from Metals3.2.4 Secondary Emission3.3 Types of Vacuum Tubes3.3.1 Diode3.3.1.1 Applications3.3.2 Triode3.3.3 Tetrode3.3.3.1 Application Example3.3.4 Pentode3.3.4.1 Application Example3.4 High-Frequency Operating Limits3.4.1 Transit-Time Effects3.5 Vacuum Tube Design3.5.1 Device Cooling3.5.1.1 Air Cooling3.5.1.2 Water Cooling3.5.1.3 Vapor-Phase Cooling3.5.1.4 Special Applications3.5.2 Cathode Assembly3.5.2.1 Oxide Cathode3.5.2.2 Thoriated-Tungsten Cathode3.5.2.3 Tungsten-Impregnated Cathode3.5.2.4 Cathode Construction3.5.2.5 Velocity of Emission3.5.3 Grid Structures3.5.3.1 Wire Grids3.5.3.2 K-Grid3.5.3.3 Pyrolytic Grid3.5.3.4 Grid Physical Structure3.5.3.5 Secondary Emission Considerations3.5.4 Plate Assembly3.5.4.1 Ceramic Elements3.5.4.2 Aluminum Oxide Ceramics3.5.4.3 Beryllium Oxide Ceramics3.5.4.4 Other Ceramics3.6 Tube Construction3.6.1 Connection Points3.6.2 Tube Sockets3.7 Neutralization3.7.1 Circuit Analysis3.7.2 Circuit Design3.7.2.1 Below VHF3.7.2.2 VHF and Above3.7.3 Grounded-Grid Amplifier Neutralization3.7.4 Grid impedance3.7.4.1 Application Example3.7.5 Self-Neutralizing Frequency3.7.6 Neutralization Adjustment3.8 Electron Tube Characteristics3.8.1 Interpretation of Tube Data

4 Designing Vacuum Tube Systems
4.1 Introduction4.1.1 Class A Amplifier4.1.2 Class B and AB Amplifiers4.1.3 Class C Amplifier4.2 Principles of RF Power Amplification4.2.1 Drive Power Requirements4.2.1.1 Operational Considerations for VHF and UHF4.2.2 Mechanical and Electrical Considerations4.2.2.1 Lead Lengths4.2.2.2 Power Supply Considerations4.2.3 Bypassing Tube Elements4.2.3.1 Filament Bypassing4.2.3.2 Screen and Suppressor Grid Bypassing4.2.3.3 Application Examples4.2.4 Parasitic Oscillations4.2.4.1 Dynatron Oscillation4.2.4.2 Harmonic Energy4.2.5 Shielding4.2.5.1 Pierced Shields4.2.5.2 Metal Base Shells and Submounted Sockets4.2.5.3 Compartments4.2.6 Protection Measures4.2.7 Cavity Amplifier Systems4.2.8 Bandwidth and Efficiency4.2.9 Current Paths4.2.9.1 Input Circuit4.2.9.2 Output Circuit4.2.10 1/4-Wavelength Cavity4.2.10.1 Tuning the Cavity4.2.11 1/2-Wavelength Cavity4.2.11.1 Lengthening the Plate Line4.2.12 Folded 1/2-Wavelength Cavity4.2.13 Wideband Cavity4.2.14 Output Coupling4.2.14.1 Inductive Coupling4.2.14.2 Capacitive Coupling4.2.14.3 PA Loading4.2.15 Mechanical Design4.3 High-Voltage Power Supplies4.3.1 Silicon Rectifiers4.3.1.1 Operating Rectifiers in Series4.3.1.2 Operating Rectifiers in Parallel4.3.1.3 Silicon Avalanche Rectifiers4.3.2 Thyristor Servo Systems4.3.2.1 Inductive Loads4.3.2.2 Applications4.3.2.3 Triggering Circuits4.3.2.4 Fusing4.3.2.5 Control Flexibility4.3.3 Polyphase Rectifier Circuits4.3.4 Power Supply Filter Circuits4.3.4.1 Inductive Input Filter4.3.4.2 Capacitive Input Filter4.3.5 Parameter Sampling Circuits4.3.6 Protection Systems
5 Applying Vacuum Tube Devices
5.1 Introduction5.2 AM Power Amplification Systems5.2.1 Control Grid Modulation5.2.2 Suppressor Grid Modulation5.2.3 Cathode Modulation5.2.4 High-Level AM Amplification5.2.4.1 Class B Modulator5.2.5 Pulse Width Modulation5.3 Linear Amplification5.3.1 Device Selection5.3.2 Grid-Driven Linear Amplifier5.3.3 Cathode-Driven Linear Amplifier5.3.4 Intermodulation Distortion5.4 High-Efficiency Linear Amplification5.4.1 Chireix Outphasing Modulated Amplifier5.4.2 Doherty Amplifier5.4.3 Screen-Modulated Doherty-Type Amplifier5.4.4 Terman–Woodyard Modulated Amplifier5.4.5 Dome Modulated Amplifier5.5 Television Power Amplifier Systems5.5.1 System Considerations5.5.2 Power Amplifier5.5.2.1 Application Example5.6 FM Power Amplifier Systems5.6.1 Cathode-Driven Triode Amplifier5.6.2 Grounded-Grid vs. Grid-Driven Tetrode5.6.3 Grid-Driven Tetrode/Pentode Amplifiers5.6.4 Impedance Matching into the Grid5.6.4.1 Interstage Coupling5.6.5 Neutralization5.7 Special-Application Amplifiers5.7.1 Distributed Amplification5.7.2 Radar5.7.2.1 Modulator
6 Microwave Power Tubes
6.1 Introduction6.1.1 Linear-Beam Tubes6.1.2 Crossed-Field Tubes6.1.2.1 Crossed-Field Amplifier6.2 Grid Vacuum Tubes6.2.1 Planar Triode6.2.2 High-Power UHF Tetrode6.2.3 Diacrode6.3 Klystron6.3.1 Reflex Klystron6.3.2 Two-Cavity Klystron6.3.2.1 Two-Cavity Klystron Oscillator6.3.2.2 Two-Cavity Klystron Amplifier6.3.3 Multicavity Klystron6.3.3.1 Operating Principles6.3.3.2 Emission6.3.3.3 Modulating Anode6.3.3.4 Magnetic Field6.3.3.5 RF Structure6.3.3.6 Phased Electron Operation6.3.3.7 Types of Devices6.3.4 Beam Pulsing6.3.5 Integral vs. External Cavity6.3.5.1 Number of Cavities6.3.5.2 Efficiency6.3.5.3 Performance Trade-Offs6.3.6 MSDC Klystron6.3.6.1 Theory of Operation6.3.6.2 Electron Trajectories6.3.6.3 Mechanical Construction6.3.6.4 MSDC Power Supply6.3.6.5 Device Performance6.3.6.6 Applying the MSDC Klystron6.4 Klystrode/lnductive Output Tube6.4.1 Theory of Operation6.4.2 Electron Gun6.4.3 Grid Structure6.4.4 Input Cavity6.4.5 Output Cavity6.4.6 Application Considerations6.4.7 Continuing Research Efforts6.5 Constant Efficiency Amplifier6.5.1 Theory of Operation6.6 Traveling Wave Tube6.6.1 Theory of Operation6.6.1.1 Interaction Circuit6.6.1.2 Pulse Modulation6.6.1.3 Electron Gun6.6.1.4 Beam Focusing6.6.1.5 Collector Assembly6.6.2 Operating Efficiency6.6.3 Operational Considerations6.6.3.1 Intermodulation Distortion6.6.3.2 Second-Harmonic Content6.6.3.3 AM/PM Conversion6.6.3.4 Phase Variation6.7 Crossed-Field Tubes6.7.1 Magnetron6.7.1.1 Operating Principles6.7.1.2 Coaxial Magnetron6.7.1.3 Frequency-Agile Magnetron6.7.1.4 Linear Magnetron6.7.2 Backward Wave Oscillator6.7.3 Strap-Fed Devices6.7.4 Gyrotron6.7.4.1 Theory of Operation6.7.4.2 Gyrotron Design Variations6.8 Other Microwave Devices6.8.1 Quasiquantum Devices6.8.2 Variations on the Klystron6.9 Microwave Tube Life6.9.1 Life-Support System6.9.2 Protection Measures6.9.2.1 Heater Supply6.9.2.2 Beam Supply6.9.2.3 Magnet Supply6.9.2.4 RF Circuits6.9.3 Filament Voltage Control6.9.4 Cooling System6.9.5 Reliability Statistics6.9.5.1 MTTR
7 RF Interconnection and Switching
7.1 Introduction7.1.1 Skin Effect7.2 Coaxial Transmission Line7.2.1 Electrical Parameters7.2.1.1 Transverse Electromagnetic Mode7.2.1.2 Dielectric7.2.1.3 Impedance7.2.1.4 Resonant Characteristics7.2.2 Electrical Considerations7.2.3 Coaxial Cable Ratings7.2.3.1 Power Rating7.2.3.2 Connector Effects7.2.3.3 Attenuation7.2.3.4 Phase Stability7.2.4 Mechanical Parameters7.3 Waveguide7.3.1 Propagation Modes7.3.1.1 Dual-Polarity Waveguide7.3.1.2 Efficiency7.3.2 Ridged Waveguide7.3.3 Circular Waveguide7.3.3.1 Parasitic Energy7.3.4 Doubly Truncated Waveguide7.3.5 Impedance Matching7.3.5.1 Waveguide Filters7.3.6 Installation Considerations7.3.6.1 Tuning7.3.6.2 Waveguide Hardware7.3.7 Cavity Resonators7.4 RF Combiner and Diplexer Systems7.4.1 Passive Filters7.4.1.1 Filter Type7.4.1.2 Filter Alignment7.4.1.3 Filter Order7.4.2 Four-Port Hybrid Combiner7.4.3 Nonconstant-Impedance Diplexer7.4.4 Constant-Impedance Diplexer7.4.4.1 Band-Stop Diplexer7.4.4.2 Bandpass Constant-Impedance Diplexer7.4.4.3 Isolation of f1 to f27.4.4.4 Intermodulation Products7.4.4.5 Group Delay7.4.5 Microwave Combiners7.4.6 Hot-Switching Combiners7.4.6.1 Phase Relationships7.4.6.2 Variable-Dielectric Vane7.4.6.3 Dielectric Posts7.4.6.4 Variable-Phase Hybrid7.4.7 Phased-Array Antenna Systems7.4.7.1 Phase-Shift Devices7.4.7.2 Radar System Duplexer7.5 High-Power Isolators7.5.1 Theory of Operation7.5.2 Applications7.5.2.1 Hot Switch7.5.2.2 Diplexer7.5.2.3 Multiplexer
8 Properties of Materials
8.1 Metals8.1.1 Skin Depth8.1.2 Heat Conduction8.1.3 Thermal Expansion8.2 Dielectrics8.2.1 Frequency Dependence of the Properties8.3 Tabular Data8.3.1 Electrical Resistivity of Pure Metals8.3.2 Electrical Resistivity of Selected Alloys8.3.3 Resistance of Wires8.3.4 Dielectric Constants of Common Materials
9 Cooling Considerations
9.1 Introduction9.1.1 Thermal Properties9.1.2 Heat Transfer Mechanisms9.1.2.1 Conduction9.1.2.2 Convection9.1.2.3 Radiation9.1.3 Physics of Boiling Water9.2 Application of Cooling Principles9.2.1 Forced-Air Cooling Systems9.2.1.1 Cooling Airflow Data9.2.1.2 Blower Selection9.2.2 Water Cooling9.2.2.1 Cooling System Design9.2.2.2 Water Purity and Resistivity9.2.2.3 Condensation9.2.2.4 Preventive Maintenance9.2.3 Vapor-Phase Cooling9.2.3.1 Anode Design9.2.3.2 Boiler9.2.3.3 Insulating Tubing9.2.3.4 Control Box9.2.3.5 Equalizer Line9.2.3.6 Condenser9.2.3.7 Pressure Interlock9.2.3.8 Piping9.2.3.9 Automatic Refilling System9.2.3.10 Alternative Vapor Cooling Systems9.2.3.11 Maintenance9.2.4 Temperature Measurements9.2.4.1 “Crayon” Temperature Measurement9.2.4.2 Phase-Change Fluid9.2.4.3 Selection Process9.2.5 Air-Handling System9.3 Operating Environment9.3.1 Air-Handling System9.3.2 Air Cooling System Design9.3.2.1 Case 19.3.2.2 Case 29.3.2.3 Case 39.3.3 Site Design Guidelines9.3.3.1 Closed Site Design9.3.3.2 Open Site Design9.3.3.3 Hybrid Design9.3.4 Water/Vapor Cooling System Maintenance9.3.4.1 Tests for Purity9.3.4.2 Foaming Test for Water Purity
10 Reliability Considerations
10.1 Introduction10.1.1 Terminology10.2 Quality Assurance10.2.1 Inspection Process10.2.2 Reliability Evaluation10.2.2.1 Parts-Count Method10.2.2.2 Stress-Analysis Method10.2.3 Failure Analysis10.2.4 Standardization10.3 Reliability Analysis10.3.1 Statistical Reliability10.3.1.1 Roller-Coaster Hazard Rate10.3.2 Environmental Stress Screening10.3.3 Latent Defects10.3.4 Operating Environment10.3.5 Failure Modes10.3.6 Maintenance Considerations10.3.6.1 Common-Mode Failure10.3.6.2 Spare Parts10.4 Vacuum Tube Reliability10.4.1 Thermal Cycling10.4.2 Tube-Changing Procedure10.4.3 Power Tube Conditioning10.4.3.1 Power Supply10.4.3.2 Conditioning Procedure10.4.3.3 Considerations for Very Large Tubes10.4.3.4 Safety10.4.4 Filament Voltage10.4.4.1 Black Heat10.4.5 Filament Voltage Management10.4.5.1 Klystron Devices10.4.6 PA Stage Tuning10.4.7 Fault Protection10.4.8 Vacuum Tube Life10.4.8.1 Catastrophic Failures10.4.9 Examining Tube Performance10.4.10 Shipping and Handling Vacuum Tubes10.5 Klystron Reliability10.5.1 Cleaning and Flushing the Cooling System10.5.1.1 Transmitter Flushing10.5.1.2 Flushing Klystron Water Lines10.5.1.3 Cleaning Klystron Water Lines10.5.1.4 Flushing and Cleaning Magnet Water Lines10.5.1.5 General Cleaning10.5.2 Cleaning Ceramic Elements10.5.3 Reconditioning Klystron Gun Elements10.5.4 Focusing Electromagnet Maintenance10.5.5 Power Control Considerations10.5.5.1 Primary Power Interruption
11 Device Performance Criteria
11.1 Introduction11.2 Measurement Parameters11.2.1 Power Measurements11.2.1.1 Root Mean Square11.2.1.2 Average-Response Measurement11.2.1.3 Peak-Response Measurement11.2.1.4 Measurement Bandwidth11.2.1.5 Meter Accuracy11.2.1.6 Radio Frequency Power Measurement11.2.2 Decibel Measurement11.2.3 Noise Measurement11.2.4 Phase Measurement11.2.4.1 Relation to Frequency11.2.5 Nonlinear Distortion11.2.5.1 Harmonic Distortion11.2.5.2 Intermodulation Distortion11.2.5.3 Measurement Techniques11.2.5.4 Addition and Cancellation of Distortion Components11.2.5.5 Intermodulation Precorrection Techniques11.3 Vacuum Tube Operating Parameters11.3.1 Stage Tuning11.3.1.1 Power Grid Tubes11.3.1.2 Screen Voltage11.3.1.3 Back-Heating by Electrons11.3.2 Amplifier Balance11.3.3 Parallel Tube Amplifiers11.3.4 Harmonic Energy11.3.4.1 Controlling Harmonics11.3.5 Klystron Tuning Considerations11.3.6 Intermodulation Distortion11.3.6.1 Generation of Radio Frequency Intermodulation Products11.3.6.2 Intermodulation as a Function of Turnaround Loss11.4 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio11.5 Radio Frequency System Performance11.5.1 Key System Measurements11.5.2 Synchronous AM in FM Systems11.5.2.1 Bandwidth Limiting11.5.2.2 Effects of Synchronous Amplitude Modulation11.5.3 Incidental Phase Modulation11.5.3.1 Bandwidth Considerations11.5.3.2 Corrective Procedures11.5.4 Carrier Amplitude Regulation11.5.5 Site-Related Intermodulation Products11.5.5.1 Receiver Intermod11.5.5.2 Hardware Intermod
12 RF System Maintenance and Troubleshooting
12.1 Introduction12.2 Routine Maintenance12.2.1 Maintenance Log12.2.1.1 Case Study #112.2.1.2 Case Study #212.2.2 Preventive Maintenance Routine12.2.2.1 Resistors and Capacitors12.2.2.2 Power Supply Components12.2.2.3 Coils and RF Transformers12.2.2.4 Relay Mechanisms12.2.2.5 Connection Points12.2.3 Cleaning the System12.3 Transmission Line and Antenna12.3.1 Effects of Modulation12.3.2 Maintenance Considerations12.4 High-Voltage Power Supply12.4.1 Power Supply Maintenance12.4.2 Power Supply Metering12.4.3 Overload Sensor12.4.4 Transient Disturbances12.4.5 Single Phasing12.5 Troubleshooting Procedure12.5.1 Factory Service Assistance12.5.2 Plate Overload Fault12.5.2.1 Troubleshooting Procedure12.5.2.2 Process of Elimination12.5.3 Radio Frequency System Faults12.5.3.1 Component Substitution12.5.3.2 VSWR Overload12.5.4 Power Control Faults12.5.4.1 Thyristor Control System12.5.4.2 Interlock Failures12.5.4.3 Step-Start Faults12.5.5 Protection Circuits
13 Safe Handling of Vacuum Tube Devices
13.1 Introduction13.2 Electric Shock13.2.1 Effects on the Human Body13.2.2 Circuit Protection Hardware13.2.3 Working with High Voltage13.2.3.1 Radio Frequency Considerations13.2.4 First Aid Procedures13.3 Operating Hazards13.3.1 OSHA Safety Considerations13.3.1.1 Protective Covers13.3.1.2 Identification and Marking13.3.1.3 Grounding13.3.2 Beryllium Oxide Ceramics13.3.3 Corrosive and Poisonous Compounds13.3.4 FC-75 Toxic Vapor13.4 Nonionizing Radiation13.4.1 NEPA Mandate13.4.2 Revised Guidelines13.4.3 Multiple-User Sites13.4.4 Operator Safety Considerations13.4.5 X-Ray Radiation Hazard13.4.6 Implosion Hazard13.4.7 Hot Coolant and Surfaces13.4.8 Polychlorinated Biphenyls13.4.8.1 Governmental Action
Appendix: Mathematics, Symbols, and Physical Constants
Index

Content preview from Power Vacuum Tubes Handbook, 3rd Edition

Metals serve many different functions in the realization of radio frequency (RF) and microwave devices, each of which results in different requirements that must be met. Thus, the optimum metal for each application will vary widely. Considerations include a wide range of electrical, mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties.

A first-order consideration in the choice of metals for many electrical applications is the electrical resistance of the metal conductor. DC resistance of a metal rod is given by

$R = \frac{ρ L}{A}$

8.1

where

R is the resistance of the rod
ρ is the resistivity of the metal
L is the length of the rod
A is the cross-sectional area of the rod

The dc electrical properties of metals are also ...

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Power Vacuum Tubes Handbook, 3rd Edition

by Jerry Whitaker

8Properties of Materials

8.1 Metals ^*

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