book

Ferroelectric Dielectrics Integrated on Silicon

Name: Ferroelectric Dielectrics Integrated on Silicon
Author: Emmanuel Defaÿ
ISBN: 9781848213135

by Emmanuel Defaÿ

October 2011

Intermediate to advanced

448 pages

12h 32m

English

Wiley

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Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Chapter 1: The Thermodynamic Approach
1.1. Background1.2. The functions of state1.3. Linear equations, piezoelectricity1.4. Nonlinear equations, electrostriction1.5. Thermodynamic modeling of the ferroelectric–paraelectric phase transition1.5.1. Assumption on the elastic Gibbs energy1.5.2. Second-order transition1.5.3. Effect of stress1.5.4. First-order transition1.6. Conclusion1.7. Bibliography
Chapter 2: Stress Effect on Thin Films
2.1. Introduction2.2. Modeling the system under consideration2.3. Temperature–misfit strain phase diagrams for monodomain films2.3.1. Phase diagram construction from the Landau–Ginzburg–Devonshire theory2.3.2. Calculations limitations2.4. Domain stability map2.4.1. Presentation and description of the framework of study2.4.2. Main contributions to the total energy of a film2.4.3. Influence of thickness2.4.4. Macroscopic elastic energy for each type of tetragonal domain2.4.5. Indirect interaction energy2.4.6. Domain structures at equilibrium2.4.7. Domain stability map2.4.7.1. Regions of existence2.4.7.2. Regions of stability2.4.7.3. Domain stability map2.5. Temperature–misfit strain phase diagram for polydomain films2.6. Discussion of the nature of the “misfit strain”2.6.1. Mechanical misfit strain2.6.2. Thermodynamic misfit strain2.6.3. As an illustration2.7. Conclusion2.8. Experimental validation of phase diagrams: state of the art2.9. Case study2.10. Results2.10.1. Evolution of the lattice parameters2.10.2. Associated stresses and strains2.10.2.1. Deposition stress2.10.2.2. Inhomogeneous stresses2.10.2.3. Differential thermal stress2.10.2.4. Misfit strain2.10.2.5. Mechanical strain2.11. Comparison between the experimental data and the temperature–misfit strain phase diagrams2.11.1. Thin film of PZT2.11.2. Thin layer of PbTiO32.12. Conclusion2.13. Bibliography
Chapter 3: Deposition and Patterning Technologies
3.1. Deposition method3.1.1. Cathodic sputtering3.1.2. Ion beam sputtering3.1.3. Pulsed laser deposition3.1.4. The sol–gel process3.1.5. The MOCVD3.1.6. Molecular beam epitaxy3.2. Etching3.2.1. Wet etching3.2.2. Dry etching3.3. Contamination3.4. Monocrystalline thin-film transfer3.4.1. Smart Cut™ technology3.4.2. Bonding/thinning3.4.3. Interest in the material in a thin layer3.4.4. State of the art of the domain/applications3.4.4.1. Substrates obtained through transfer of monocrystalline layers3.4.4.2. SAW filters3.4.4.3. BAW filters3.4.4.4. Optical applications3.4.5. An exemplary implementation3.4.5.1. Technology3.4.5.2. Substrate characterization3.5. Design of experiments3.5.1. The assumptions3.5.2. Reproducibility3.5.3. How can we reduce the number of experiments?3.5.4. A DOE example: PZT RF magnetron sputtering deposition3.6. Conclusion3.7. Bibliography
Chapter 4: Analysis Through X-ray Diffraction of Polycrystalline Thin Films
4.1. Introduction4.2. Some reminders of X-ray diffraction and crystallography4.2.1. Nature of X-rays4.2.2. X-ray scattering and diffraction4.2.2.1. X-ray scatterings4.2.2.1.1. X-ray scattering by an electron4.2.2.1.2. X-ray scattering by an atom4.2.2.1.3. X-ray scattering by a crystal4.2.2.2. Principle of X-ray diffraction4.2.2.2.1. Theory of the X-ray diffraction4.2.2.2.2. Bragg’s equation4.3. Application to powder or polycrystalline thin-films4.4. Phase analysis by X-ray diffraction4.4.1. Grazing incidence diffraction4.4.2. De-texturing4.4.3. Quantitative analysis4.5. Identification of coherent domain sizes of diffraction and micro-strains4.5.1. Analysis methodologies4.5.1.1. Williamson-Hall method4.6. Identification of crystallographic textures by X-ray diffraction4.6.1. Texture analysis by a symmetric diffractogram4.6.2. Pole figures and orientations distribution function4.6.3. Measurement principle4.6.4. Orientations distribution function4.7. Determination of strains/stresses by X-ray diffraction4.7.1. X-ray diffraction and strain4.7.2. Determination of stresses from strains4.7.3. Specificity of the X-ray diffraction in stress analysis4.7.4. Equipment4.7.5. Example of stress identification by the sin2ψ method4.7.6. Precaution in the case of thin films4.7.7. Application example for a BaxSr1−xTiO3 film4.8. Bibliography
Chapter 5: Physicochemical and Electrical Characterization
5.1. Introduction5.2. Useful characterization techniques5.2.1. Electron microscopy5.2.1.1. Scanning electron microscopy5.2.1.2. Transmission electron microscopy5.2.2. Spectroscopy analysis5.2.2.1. X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy5.2.2.2. Auger electron spectroscopy5.2.2.3. Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy5.2.2.4. Secondary ion mass spectrometry5.2.2.5. Raman5.3. Ferroelectric measurement5.3.1. Sawyer–Tower assembly5.3.2. “Virtual ground” assembly5.4. Dielectric measurement5.5. Bibliography
Chapter 6: Radio-Frequency Characterization
6.1. Introduction6.2. Notions and basic concepts associated with HF6.2.1. Introduction to the phenomena associated with HF signals6.2.2. Lumped or distributed behavior of an electric circuit6.2.3. Notion of quadripoles: two-port circuits or four-terminal network [MÉS 85]6.2.3.1. Definition6.2.3.2. Y Z, and ABCD parameters associated with a quadripole6.2.3.2.1. Z parameters6.2.3.2.2. Y parameters6.2.3.2.3. Chain parameters (ABCD parameters6.2.3.3. Computing method of the Y Z, H, and ABCD parameters6.2.3.4. Combination of quadripoles6.2.3.4.1. Chain or cascade combination6.2.3.4.2. Series combination6.2.3.4.3. Parallel combination6.2.4. Basic theoretical elements of transmission lines: HF electric model6.2.5. HF electric model of a parallel MIM capacitor6.2.6. Signal flow graph [BOR 93]6.2.7. Scattering waves6.2.8. Scattering parameters: S-parameters6.2.9. Vector network analyzer (VNA)6.3. Frequency analysis: HF characterization of materials6.3.1. Objectives6.3.2. Issues of HF measurements through a VNA6.3.3. Calibration of the measuring system6.3.4. Extraction of the propagation exponent of the transmission line: de-embedding associated with the TRL calibration6.3.5. Extraction results of the complex permittivity of materials SrTiO3 and PbZrTiO36.4. Bibliography

Chapter 7: Leakage Currents in PZT Capacitors
7.1. Introduction7.2. Leakage current in metal/insulator/metal structures7.2.1. Metal/insulator contact: definitions7.2.1.1. Fermi level, work function, and electron affinity7.2.1.2. Neutral contact7.2.1.3. Blocking contact7.2.1.4. Ohmic contact7.2.1.5. Intrinsic and extrinsic carriers7.2.2. Conduction mechanisms limited by the interfaces7.2.2.1. Schottky emission7.2.2.2. Tunneling conduction7.2.3. Conduction mechanisms limited by the bulk of film7.2.3.1. Poole-Frenkel emission7.2.3.2. Hopping conduction7.2.3.3. Conduction limited by the space charge7.3. Problem of leakage current measurement7.3.1. Relaxation current and true leakage current7.3.1.1. Staircase procedure7.3.1.2. Pulse procedure7.3.2. Drift of true leakage current7.3.3. Discussion7.4. Characterization of the relaxation current7.4.1. Origin of the relaxation current7.4.2. Modeling of relaxation currents7.4.2.1. Temperature evolution7.4.2.2. Voltage evolution7.4.3. Conclusion7.5. Literature review of true leakage current in PZT7.6. Dynamic characterization of true leakage current: I(t, T)7.6.1. Study of the resistance degradation7.6.1.1. State of the art7.6.1.1.1. Role of oxygen vacancies7.6.1.1.2. Role of the interfaces7.6.1.2. Modeling of the resistance degradation7.6.1.3. Temperature activation of the resistance degradation7.6.1.4. Influence of voltage on resistance degradation7.6.1.5. Discussion – interpretation of results7.6.1.5.1. Influence of polarity: roles of bulk and interfaces7.6.1.5.2. Capacitive measurements before and after degradation7.6.1.5.3. Reversibility of the resistance degradation mechanism7.6.1.6. Conclusion7.6.2. Study of the resistance restoration phenomenon7.6.2.1. Modeling the resistance restoration7.6.2.2. Temperature activation of resistance restoration7.6.2.3. Influence of voltage on the resistance restoration7.6.3. Conclusion7.7. Static characterization of the true leakage current: I(V,T)7.7.1. Space-charge influenced-injection model7.7.2. Quantitative description of the model7.7.2.1. Ohmic regime7.7.2.2. Static Schottky regime7.7.2.3. Dynamic Schottky regime7.7.3. Static modeling Jmin(V) and Jmax(V)7.7.3.1. Experimental procedure7.7.3.2. Modeling results7.7.3.3. Discussion: consistency of the model7.7.3.4. Temperature modeling of Jmax(V)7.8. Conclusion7.9. Bibliography
Chapter 8: Integrated Capacitors
8.1. Introduction8.2. Potentiality of perovskites for RF devices: permittivity and losses8.2.1. RF MIM capacitors of STO and PZT8.2.1.1. Used technology8.2.1.2. Model and RF/LF tests8.2.1.3. Results and discussions8.2.1.3.1. Extraction of the model parameters from the RF measurements8.2.1.3.2. Dielectric constants as a function of frequency8.2.1.4. Conclusion8.2.2. Coplanar line waveguides on PZT8.2.2.1. Technology and model8.2.2.2. Experimental results and discussion8.2.3. How to perform a good integrated capacitor at RF frequencies?8.2.3.1. Right impedance and quality factor8.2.3.2. Dielectric losses8.2.3.3. Electrodes8.2.3.4. Area8.2.3.5. Variation with polarization and temperature8.3. Bi-dielectric capacitors with high linearity8.3.1. Introduction8.3.2. Design8.3.3. Technology8.3.4. Results8.4. STO capacitors integrated on CMOS substrate by AIC technology8.4.1. Introduction8.4.2. Technology8.4.3. Electrical tests8.4.4. Conclusion8.5. Bibliography
Chapter 9: Reliability of PZT Capacitors
9.1. Introduction9.2. Accelerated aging of metal/insulator/metal structures9.2.1. The electrical stresses9.2.1.1. Constant stress tests (CVS and CCS)9.2.1.2. Ramp stress tests (LRVS and ERCS)9.2.2. The breakdown9.2.2.1. The percolation model9.2.3. Statistical treatment of breakdown9.2.3.1. Definitions: statistics reminders9.2.3.1.1. Probability density f and cumulative distribution F functions9.2.3.1.2. Reliability function R9.2.3.1.3. Failure ratio function λ9.2.3.1.4. Weibull statistical distribution9.2.3.1.5. Estimation of adjustment parameters9.2.3.1.5.1. Maximum likelihood method9.2.3.1.5.2. Determination of confidence intervals9.3. Accelerated aging of PZT capacitors through CVS tests9.3.1. Literature review9.3.2. Statistical study of time-to-breakdown data9.3.2.1. Traditional voltage acceleration9.3.2.2. Temperature acceleration at low voltage9.3.3. Discussion: characterization strategy9.3.3.1. Summary of reliability results obtained at wafer level9.3.3.2. Implementation of package level reliability results9.3.3.3. Conclusion9.4. Lifetime extrapolation of PZT capacitors9.4.1. Determination of the temperature acceleration factor9.4.2. Determination of voltage acceleration9.4.2.1. Classical lifetime extrapolation models for voltage or electric field acceleration9.4.2.1.1. E model9.4.2.1.2. 1/E model9.4.2.1.3. Power law model9.4.2.1.4. E1/2 model9.4.2.1.5. Discussion9.4.2.2. Additional data of reliability in packages: toward an E model9.4.2.3. Conclusion9.5. Conclusion9.6. Bibliography
Chapter 10: Ferroelectric Tunable Capacitors
10.1. Introduction10.2. Overview of the tunable capacitors10.2.1. Applications requiring a tunable element10.2.2. The tunable capacitors10.2.2.1. MOS varactor10.2.2.2. MEMS10.2.2.3. Ferroelectric capacitor10.2.2.4. Conclusion10.2.3. Which material to choose?10.2.3.1. Note on the dielectric losses10.3. Types of actual tunable capacitors10.3.1. MIM capacitor10.3.1.1. Origin of size effects10.3.1.2. Crystalline strains10.3.1.2.1. Dead layer phenomenon10.3.2. Planar capacity10.3.2.1. Conformal mapping10.3.2.2. Comparison of the measure and the simulation10.3.3. Anisotropy effects10.4. Toward new tunable capacitors10.4.1. Composite ferroelectric materials10.4.1.1. State of the art10.4.1.2. Modeling of a “spherical inclusions” composite10.4.1.3. BST amorphous/crystalline composite10.4.2. Hybrid tunable capacitor10.4.2.1. The hybrid structure10.4.2.2. Measurements on hybrid capacitors10.5. Bibliography
Chapter 11: FRAM Ferroelectric Memories: Basic Operations, Limitations, Innovations and Applications
11.1. Taxonomy of non-volatile memories11.1.1. Present and future solutions11.1.2. Difficult penetration of a highly competitive market11.2. FRAM memories: basic operations and limitations11.2.1. Charge storage in a ferroelectric capacitor11.2.2. Ferroelectric materials11.3. Technologies available in 201111.4. Technological innovations11.4.1. 3D ferroelectric capacitors11.4.2. Ferroelectric field effect transistors11.4.3. What about ferroelectric polymers?11.5. Some application areas of FRAM technology11.5.1. An alternative to EEPROM memories11.5.2. Ferroelectric devices for RFID systems11.6. Conclusion11.7. Bibliography
Chapter 12: Integration of Multiferroic BiFeO3 Thin Films into Modern Microelectronics
12.1. Introduction12.2. Preparation methods12.2.1. Pulsed laser deposition12.2.2. Chemical solution deposition12.2.3. RF magnetron sputtering12.3. Ferroelectricity and magnetism12.3.1. Ferroelectricity12.3.2. Magnetism12.3.3. Magnetoelectric coupling12.4. Device applications12.4.1. Non-volatile ferroelectric memories12.4.2. Spintronics12.4.3. Terahertz radiation12.4.4. Switchable ferroelectric diodes and photovoltaic devices12.5. Bibliography
List of Authors
Index

Overview

This book describes up-to-date technology applied to high-K materials for More Than Moore applications, i.e. microsystems applied to microelectronics core technologies.

After detailing the basic thermodynamic theory applied to high-K dielectrics thin films including extrinsic effects, this book emphasizes the specificity of thin films. Deposition and patterning technologies are then presented. A whole chapter is dedicated to the major role played in the field by X-Ray Diffraction characterization, and other characterization techniques are also described such as Radio frequency characterization. An in-depth study of the influence of leakage currents is performed together with reliability discussion. Three applicative chapters cover integrated capacitors, variables capacitors and ferroelectric memories. The final chapter deals with a reasonably new research field, multiferroic thin films.

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