book

C++ In a Nutshell

Name: C++ In a Nutshell
Author: Ray Lischner
ISBN: 9780596002985

by Ray Lischner

May 2003

Intermediate to advanced

808 pages

32h 24m

English

O'Reilly Media, Inc.

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A Note Regarding Supplemental Files
Preface
Structure of This Book
About the Examples
Conventions Used in This Book
For More Information
Comments and Questions
Acknowledgments
1. Language Basics
1.1. Compilation Steps

1.2. Tokens
1.2.1. Identifiers1.2.2. Keywords1.2.3. Literals1.2.3.1. Integer literals1.2.3.2. Floating-point literals1.2.3.3. Boolean literals1.2.3.4. Character literals1.2.3.5. String literals1.2.4. Symbols
1.3. Comments
1.4. Character Sets
1.5. Alternative Tokens
1.6. Trigraphs
2. Declarations
2.1. Declarations and Definitions
2.1.1. Definitions2.1.2. Ambiguity
2.2. Scope
2.3. Name Lookup
2.3.1. Qualified Name Lookup2.3.2. Unqualified Name Lookup2.3.3. Argument-Dependent Name Lookup
2.4. Linkage
2.4.1. Scope Linkage2.4.2. Language Linkage
2.5. Type Declarations
2.5.1. Fundamental Types2.5.2. Enumerated Types2.5.3. POD Types2.5.4. typedef Declarations2.5.5. Elaborated Type Specifier
2.6. Object Declarations
2.6.1. Specifiers2.6.1.1. Storage class specifiers2.6.1.2. const and volatile qualifiers2.6.1.3. Type specifiers2.6.1.4. Using specifiers2.6.2. Declarators2.6.2.1. Arrays2.6.2.2. Pointers2.6.2.3. Function pointers2.6.2.4. Member pointers2.6.2.5. References2.6.3. Initializers2.6.3.1. Function-like initializers2.6.3.2. Assignment-like initializers2.6.3.3. Initializing arrays2.6.3.4. Initializing scalars2.6.4. Object Lifetime
2.7. Namespaces
2.7.1. Namespace Definitions2.7.2. Namespace Aliases2.7.3. using Declarations2.7.4. using Directives2.7.5. How to Use Namespaces
3. Expressions
3.1. Lvalues and Rvalues
3.2. Type Conversions
3.2.1. Arithmetic Types3.2.2. Type Promotion3.2.3. Arithmetic Type Conversions3.2.4. Implicit Numeric Conversions3.2.5. Lvalue Conversions3.2.6. Conversion to bool3.2.7. Type Casts
3.3. Constant Expressions
3.3.1. Integral Constant Expressions3.3.2. Null Pointers
3.4. Expression Evaluation
3.4.1. Sequence Points3.4.2. Order of Evaluation3.4.3. Short-Circuit Evaluation
3.5. Expression Rules
3.5.1. Primary Expressions3.5.2. Postfix Expressions3.5.3. Unary Expressions3.5.4. Cast Expressions3.5.5. Pointer-to-Member Expressions3.5.6. Multiplicative Expressions3.5.7. Additive Expressions3.5.8. Shift Expressions3.5.9. Relational Expressions3.5.10. Equality Expressions3.5.11. Bitwise And Expressions3.5.12. Bitwise Exclusive Or Expressions3.5.13. Bitwise Inclusive Or Expressions3.5.14. Logical And Expressions3.5.15. Logical Or Expressions3.5.16. Conditional Expressions3.5.17. Assignment Expressions3.5.18. Comma Expressions
4. Statements
4.1. Expression Statements
4.2. Declarations
4.2.1. Declaration Statements4.2.2. Condition Declarations
4.3. Compound Statements
4.4. Selections
4.4.1. if Statements4.4.2. switch Statements
4.5. Loops
4.5.1. while Statements4.5.2. for Statements4.5.3. do Statements
4.6. Control Statements
4.7. Handling Exceptions
5. Functions
5.1. Function Declarations
5.1.1. Return Type5.1.2. Parameters5.1.3. Default Arguments5.1.4. Variable Number of Arguments5.1.5. cv-qualifiers5.1.6. Exception Specifications
5.2. Function Definitions
5.2.1. Declarations and Definitions5.2.2. Function Types and Signatures5.2.3. Function Bodies and try Blocks
5.3. Function Overloading
5.3.1. Declaring Overloaded Functions5.3.2. Calling Overloaded Functions5.3.3. Candidate Functions5.3.3.1. Qualified member function call5.3.3.2. Unqualified function call5.3.3.3. Operator5.3.3.4. Function-like initialization5.3.3.5. Assignment-like initialization5.3.3.6. Conversion initialization5.3.3.7. Reference bound to conversion5.3.4. Addresses of Overloaded Functions5.3.5. Best Overloaded Function5.3.5.1. Pruning the candidate list5.3.5.2. Choosing the best function5.3.5.3. Argument conversion sequences
5.4. Operator Overloading
5.4.1. Short-Circuit Operators5.4.2. Comma Operator5.4.3. Increment and Decrement5.4.4. Member Reference5.4.5. Function Call5.4.6. operator new and operator delete5.4.7. Type Conversion
5.5. The main Function
6. Classes
6.1. Class Definitions
6.1.1. Plain Old Data6.1.2. Trivial Classes6.1.3. Unions6.1.4. Local Classes
6.2. Data Members
6.2.1. Data Layout6.2.2. Mutable Data Members6.2.3. Bit-Fields6.2.4. Static Data Members
6.3. Member Functions
6.3.1. Pointers-to-Members6.3.2. this Pointer6.3.3. Static Member Functions6.3.4. Constructors6.3.4.1. Declaring constructors6.3.4.2. Special constructors6.3.4.3. Calling constructors6.3.4.4. Throwing exceptions during construction6.3.5. Destructors6.3.6. Implicit Member Functions6.3.6.1. Implicit default constructor6.3.6.2. Implicit copy constructor6.3.6.3. Implicit copy assignment operator6.3.6.4. Implicit destructor
6.4. Inheritance
6.4.1. Virtual Functions6.4.2. Covariant Return Types6.4.3. Pure Virtual Functions6.4.4. Abstract Classes6.4.5. Multiple Inheritance6.4.6. Virtual Inheritance6.4.7. Polymorphic Constructors and Destructors
6.5. Access Specifiers
6.6. Friends
6.7. Nested Types
7. Templates
7.1. Overview of Templates
7.2. Template Declarations
7.3. Function Templates
7.3.1. Function Signatures7.3.2. Deducing Argument Types7.3.3. Overloading7.3.4. Operators
7.4. Class Templates
7.4.1. Member Templates7.4.2. Friends
7.5. Specialization
7.6. Partial Specialization
7.7. Instantiation
7.8. Name Lookup
7.8.1. Dependent Names7.8.2. Resolving Names7.8.3. Hiding Names7.8.4. Using Type Names
7.9. Tricks with Templates
7.10. Compiling Templates
8. Standard Library
8.1. Overview of the Standard Library
8.2. C Library Wrappers
8.3. Wide and Multibyte Characters
8.3.1. Wide Characters8.3.2. Multibyte Characters8.3.3. Shift State
8.4. Traits and Policies
8.4.1. Character Traits8.4.2. Iterator Traits8.4.3. Custom Traits
8.5. Allocators
8.5.1. Using Allocators8.5.2. Custom Allocators
8.6. Numerics
9. Input and Output
9.1. Introduction to I/O Streams
9.1.1. Custom I/O Operators9.1.2. The C Standard I/O Library9.1.3. C++ I/O Headers
9.2. Text I/O
9.2.1. Formatted Input9.2.2. Formatted Output
9.3. Binary I/O
9.4. Stream Buffers
9.5. Manipulators
9.5.1. Standard Manipulators9.5.2. Custom Manipulators
9.6. Errors and Exceptions
10. Containers, Iterators, and Algorithms
10.1. Containers
10.1.1. Standard Containers10.1.2. Container Adapters10.1.3. Pseudo-Containers10.1.4. Container Requirements10.1.4.1. Member types10.1.4.2. Member functions10.1.4.3. Exceptions10.1.5. Using Containers10.1.5.1. Value type requirements10.1.5.2. Inserting values10.1.5.3. Erasing values10.1.5.4. Searching
10.2. Iterators
10.2.1. Iterator Categories10.2.2. Iterator Safety10.2.3. Special Iterators10.2.4. Custom Iterators10.2.5. const_iterators10.2.6. Reverse Iterators
10.3. Algorithms
10.3.1. How Algorithms Work10.3.2. Standard Algorithms10.3.2.1. Nonmodifying operations10.3.2.2. Comparison10.3.2.3. Searching10.3.2.4. Binary search10.3.2.5. Modifying sequence operations10.3.2.6. Sorting10.3.2.7. Merging10.3.2.8. Set operations10.3.2.9. Heap operations10.3.2.10. Permutations10.3.3. Custom Algorithms
11. Preprocessor Reference
# operator and directive — Stringify operator and null directive
## operator — Concatenation operator
#define directive — Defines a macro
defined operator — Tests whether a macro is defined
#elif directive — Else-if for conditional compilation
#else directive — Else for conditional compilation
#endif directive — Ends conditional compilation
#error directive — Issues an error message
#if directive — Tests a condition
#ifdef directive — Tests whether a macro is defined
#ifndef directive — Tests whether a macro is undefined
#include directive — Includes another source file
#line directive — Changes the line number in error messages
#pragma directive — Controls the compiler
#undef directive — Undefines a macro
12. Language Reference
and operator — Logical and operator
and_eq operator — Bitwise and assignment operator
asm definition — Inline assembler definition
auto storage class — Automatic variable specifier
bitand operator — Bitwise and operator
bitor operator — Bitwise inclusive or operator
bool type — Boolean (logical) type specifier
break statement — Exits from a loop or switch statement
case keyword — Case label for switch statement
catch keyword — Exception handler in try statement
char type — Character type specifier
class keyword — Declares a class or template parameter, or elaborates a type name
compl operator — Bitwise complement operator
const qualifier — Marks objects and functions as constant
const_cast operator — Cast to modify qualifiers
continue statement — Reiterates a loop statement
declaration — Function, namespace, object, type, template declaration
declarator — Provides information about a single identifier in a declaration
default keyword — Catch-all label in switch statement
delete operator — Deletes a dynamic object or array of objects
do statement — Test-at-bottom loop statement
double type — Double-precision, floating-point type specifier
dynamic_cast operator — Polymorphic cast of class type objects
else keyword — Else part of if statement
enum keyword — Declares enumerated type or elaborates an enumerated type name
explicit specifier — Explicit constructor specifier
export specifier — Exported template specifier
expression — Any expression
extern storage class — External storage class specifier
false literal — Boolean false literal
float type — Single-precision, floating-point type specifier
for statement — For loop statement
friend specifier — Grants access to private class members
function — Function definition
goto statement — Transfers execution to a labeled statement
identifier — Name of an entity
if statement — Selection statement
inline specifier — Inline function specifier
int type — Integer type specifier
long type — Long type specifier
mutable specifier — Mutable data member specifier
namespace keyword — Declares namespace
new operator — Allocates a dynamic object or array of objects
not operator — Logical negation operator
not_eq operator — Inequality operator
operator keyword — Function call syntax for operators
or operator — Logical or operator
or_eq operator — Bitwise or assignment operator
private access specifier — Restricts member access to the class
protected access specifier — Restricts member access to the class and derived classes
public access specifier — No restrictions on member access
register storage class — Register storage class specifier
reinterpret_cast operator — Cast for unsafe pointer conversions
return statement — Returns from a function
short type — Short integer type specifier
signed specifier — Signed integer type specifier
sizeof operator — Size of type operator
statement — Statement syntax
static storage class — Static storage class specifier
static_cast operator — Explicit cast operator
struct keyword — Declares class with public members
switch statement — Multibranch selection statement
template keyword — Declares a template, specialization, or instantiation
this keyword — Object pointer in member function
throw operator — Throws an exception
true literal — Logical true literal
try statement — Handles exceptions in statements
type — Type specifiers
typedef keyword — Declares a type synonym
typeid operator — Runtime type identification operator
typename keyword — Introduces a type name
unsigned specifier — Unsigned integer type specifier
union keyword — Declares a union
using keyword — Looks up names in alternate classes or namespaces
virtual specifier — Polymorphic function specifier or shared base class
void keyword — Absence of type or function arguments
volatile qualifier — Volatile qualifier
wchar_t type — Wide-character type specifier
while statement — Test-at-top unbounded loop statement
xor operator — Bitwise exclusive or operator
xor_eq operator — Bitwise exclusive or assignment operator
13. Library Reference
13.1. <algorithm>
13.2. <bitset>
13.3. <cassert>
13.4. <cctype>
13.5. <cerrno>
13.6. <cfloat>
13.7. <ciso646>
13.8. <climits>
13.9. <clocale>
13.10. <cmath>
13.11. <complex>
13.12. <csetjmp>
13.13. <csignal>
13.14. <cstdarg>
13.15. <cstddef>
13.16. <cstdio>
13.17. <cstdlib>
13.18. <cstring>
13.19. <ctime>
13.20. <cwchar>
13.21. <cwctype>
13.22. <deque>
13.23. <exception>
13.24. <fstream>
13.25. <functional>
13.26. <iomanip>
13.27. <ios>
13.28. <iosfwd>
13.29. <iostream>
13.30. <istream>
13.31. <iterator>
13.32. <limits>
13.33. <list>
13.34. <locale>
13.35. <map>
13.36. <memory>
13.37. <new>
13.38. <numeric>
13.39. <ostream>
13.40. <queue>
13.41. <set>
13.42. <sstream>
13.43. <stack>
13.44. <stdexcept>
13.45. <streambuf>
13.46. <string>
13.47. <strstream>
13.48. <typeinfo>
13.49. <utility>
13.50. <valarray>
13.51. <vector>
A. Compiler Extensions
A.1. Borland C++ Builder and Kylix
A.2. GNU Compiler Collection
A.3. Microsoft Visual C++
B. Projects
B.1. Blitz++
B.2. Boost
B.3. STLport
Glossary
About the Author
Colophon
Copyright

Content preview from C++ In a Nutshell

Name

protected access specifier — Restricts member access to the class and derived classes

Synopsis

               access-specifier := protected

The protected keyword can be used within a class definition (followed by a colon) to mark subsequent member declarations as protected or before a base-class name in the class header to mark the inheritance as protected.

Protected members can be used by the class itself, derived classes, or by friends. When accessing a protected member, the access must be through this or an instance of the same class or a derived class. It cannot be through a base class.

Protected inheritance means all public members of the base class become protected in the derived class.

See private for an example.