Human Factors in Simple and Complex Systems, 3rd Edition

Table of contents

1. Cover
2. Half-Title
3. Title
4. Copyright
5. Contents
6. Preface to Third Edition
7. Preface to Second Edition
8. Authors
9. PART I Foundat Ions Of Human Factors
   1. Chapter 1 Historical Foundations of Human Factors
      1. Introduction
         1. Electronic and Digital Equipment
         2. Computer Technology
         3. Healthcare Systems
         4. Cyber Security
         5. Serious Accidents Resulting from Major System Failures
      2. What is Human Factors and Ergonomics?
         1. Definition
         2. Basic Human Performance
         3. Human–Machine Systems and Domains of Specialization
      3. Historical Antecedents
         1. Psychology of Human Performance
            1. Sensory Psychophysics
            2. Speed of Mental Processing
            3. Wundt and the Study of Attention
            4. Learning and Skill Acquisition
         2. Human Performance in Applied Settings
            1. Job Specialization and Productivity
            2. Early Human Factors Journals
         3. Biomechanics and Physiology of Human Performance
         4. Summary
      4. Emergence of the Human Factors Profession
      5. Contemporary Human Factors
      6. Summary
      7. Recommended Readings
   2. Chapter 2 Research Methods in Human Factors
      1. Introduction
      2. Distinguishing Features of Science
         1. Foundations of Science
         2. Scientific Method
         3. Goals of Science
      3. Measurement
         1. Reliability, Validity, and Control
      4. Research Methods
         1. Descriptive Methods
            1. Archival Data
            2. Naturalistic Observation and Ethnographic Methods
            3. Surveys and Questionnaires
            4. Interviews and Focus Groups
            5. Diaries and Studies of Log Files
         2. Correlational and Differential Research
         3. Experimental Methods
            1. Between-Subject Designs
            2. Within-Subject Designs
            3. Complex Designs
         4. Summary
      5. Statistical Methods
         1. Descriptive Statistics
         2. Central Tendency and Variability
         3. Correlation Coefficient
         4. Inferential Statistics
            1. Probability
            2. Statistical Hypothesis Testing
      6. A Study Evaluating Human Factors Design
      7. Summary
      8. Recommended Readings
   3. Chapter 3 Reliability and Human Error in Systems
      1. Introduction
      2. Central Concept in Human Factors: The System
         1. Implications of the System Concept
            1. The Operator Is Part of a Human– Machine System
            2. The System Goals Take Precedence over Everything Else
            3. Systems Are Hierarchical
            4. Systems and Their Components Have Inputs and Outputs
            5. A System Has Structure Deficiencies in System Performance Are Due to Inadequacies of System
            6. Design or System Components
            7. A System Operates within a Larger Environment
            8. System Variables
            9. Physical System Variables
            10. Operator Variables
            11. Summary
      3. Human Error
         1. Why Human Error Occurs
         2. Error Taxonomies
            1. Action Classification
            2. Failure Classification
            3. Processing Classification
            4. Intentional Classification
            5. Summary
      4. Reliability Analysis
         1. System Reliability
         2. Human Reliability
            1. Technique for Human Error Rate Prediction (THERP)
            2. Stochastic Modeling Technique
            3. Systematic Human Error Reduction and Prediction Approach (SHERPA) and Task Analysis for Error Identification (TAFEI)
            4. Human Cognitive Reliability Model
            5. A Technique for Human Error ANAlysis (ATHEANA)
            6. Cognitive Reliability and Error Analysis Method (CREAM)
         3. Human Performance Data Sources
         4. Probabilistic Risk Analysis
      5. Summary
      6. Recommended Readings
   4. Chapter 4 Human Information Processing
      1. Introduction
      2. A Three-Stage Model
         1. Perceptual Stage
         2. Cognitive Stage
         3. Action Stage
         4. Human Information Processing and the Three-Stage Model
      3. Psychological Representation of the Physical World
         1. Classical Methods for Detection and Discrimination
         2. Signal-Detection Methods and Theory
            1. Methods
            2. Theory
            3. Detectability and Bias
            4. Changes in Criterion
            5. Applications
         3. Psychophysical Scaling
      4. Chronometric Methods
         1. Subtractive Logic
         2. Additive-Factors Logic
         3. Continuous Information Accumulation
      5. Psychophysiological Measures
      6. Summary
      7. Recommended ReadingS
10. PART II Perceptual Factors And Their Applications
    1. Chapter 5 Visual Perception
       1. Introduction
          1. Properties of Sensory Systems
       2. The Visual Sensory System
          1. The Focusing System
             1. Cornea and Lens
             2. Pupil
             3. Vergence
             4. Focusing Problems
             5. Summary
          2. The Retina
             1. Photoreceptors
             2. Neural Layers
             3. Retinal Structure and Acuity
          3. Visual Pathways
             1. Visual Cortex
             2. Dorsal and Ventral Streams
       3. Visual Perception
          1. Brightness
             1. Dark and Light Adaptation
             2. Spectral Sensitivity
             3. The Purkinje Shift
             4. Temporal and Spatial Summation
          2. Lightness
          3. Spatial and Temporal Resolution
             1. Acuity
             2. Spatial Sensitivity
             3. Temporal Sensitivity
             4. Masking
       4. Summary
       5. Recommended Readings
    2. Chapter 6 Perception of Objects in the World
       1. Introduction
       2. Color Perception
          1. Color Mixing
          2. Trichromatic Theory
          3. Opponent Process Theory
       3. Perceptual Organization
       4. Depth Perception
          1. Oculomotor Cues
          2. Monocular Visual Cues
          3. Binocular Visual Cues
          4. Size and Shape Constancy
          5. Illusions of Size and Direction
          6. Perception of Motion
             1. Object Motion
             2. Induced Motion
             3. Apparent Motion
          7. Pattern Recognition
          8. Summary
          9. Recommended Readings
    3. Chapter 7 Hearing, Proprioception, and the Chemical Senses
       1. Introduction
       2. Hearing
          1. Sound and the Auditory Sensory System
             1. Sound Stimuli
             2. Outer and Middle Ear
             3. Inner Ear
             4. The Auditory Pathways
             5. Summary
          2. Perception of Basic Properties
             1. Loudness
             2. Pitch
             3. Timbre, Consonance, and Dissonance
          3. Perception of Higher-Level Properties
             1. Perceptual Organization
             2. Sound Localization
             3. Speech Perception
       3. The Vestibular System
       4. The Somesthetic System
          1. Sensory System
          2. Perception of Touch
          3. Perception of Temperature and Pain
       5. The Chemical Systems
       6. Summary
       7. Recommended Readings
    4. Chapter 8 The Display of Visual, Auditory, and Tactual Information
       1. Introduction
       2. Visual Displays
          1. Static Displays
             1. Effectiveness of Displays
             2. Alphanumeric Displays
             3. Symbolic Displays
             4. Coding Dimensions
             5. Color Coding
             6. Shape Coding
             7. Combination Codes
          2. Dynamic Displays
             1. Analog and Digital Displays
             2. Display Arrangements
             3. Motion Interpretability
          3. Other Displays
             1. Head-up Displays
             2. Helmet-Mounted Displays
             3. Warning Signals and Labels
       3. Auditory Displays
          1. Warning and Alarm Signals
          2. Three-Dimensional Displays
          3. Speech Displays
       4. Tactile Displays
       5. Summary
       6. Recommended Readings
11. PART III Cognitive Factors And Their Applications
    1. Chapter 9 Attention and the Assessment of Mental Workload
       1. Introduction
       2. Models of Attention
          1. Bottleneck Models
             1. Filter Theory
             2. Attenuation and Late-Selection Theories
          2. Resource Models
             1. Unitary-Resource Models
             2. Multiple-Resource Models
          3. Executive Control Models
          4. Summary
       3. Modes of Attention
          1. Selective Attention
             1. Auditory Tasks
             2. Visual Tasks
             3. Switching and Controlling Attention
          2. Divided Attention
          3. Arousal and Vigilance
       4. Mental Workload Assessment
          1. Empirical Techniques
             1. Primary-Task Measures
             2. Secondary-Task Measures
             3. Psychophysiological Measures
             4. Subjective Measures
          2. Analytical Techniques
             1. Comparison
             2. Expert Opinion
             3. Mathematical Models
             4. Task Analysis
             5. Simulation Models
             6. Summary
             7. Recommended Readings
    2. Chapter 10 Retention and Comprehension of Information
       1. Introduction
       2. Sensory Memory
          1. Visual Sensory Memory
          2. Tactile and Auditory Sensory Memories
          3. What Is the Role of Sensory Memory?
       3. Short-term Memory
          1. Basic Characteristics
          2. Improving Short-Term Retention
          3. Memory Search
          4. Models of Short-Term, or Working, Memory
             1. Baddeley and Hitch’s Working Memory Model
             2. Cowan’s Activation Model
          5. Imagery
       4. Long-term Memory
          1. Basic Characteristics
          2. Processing Strategies
       5. Comprehending Verbal and Nonverbal Material
          1. Semantic Memory
          2. Written Communication
          3. Spoken Communication
          4. Situational Awareness
       6. Summary
       7. Recommended Readings
    3. Chapter 11 Solving Problems and Making Decisions
       1. Introduction
       2. Problem Solving
          1. The Problem Space Hypothesis
          2. Analogy
       3. Logic and Reasoning
          1. Deduction
             1. Conditional Reasoning
             2. Categorical Reasoning
          2. Induction and Concepts
          3. Abduction and Hypotheses
       4. Decision Making
          1. Normative Theory
          2. Descriptive Theory
             1. Transitivity and Framing
             2. Bounded Rationality
          3. Training and Task Environment
          4. Decision Aids
       5. Summary
       6. Recommended Readings
    4. Chapter 12 Experts and Expert Systems
       1. Introduction
       2. Acquisition of Cognitive Skill
          1. Power Law of Practice
          2. Taxonomies of Skill
             1. Phases of Skill Acquisition
             2. Skill-Rule-Knowledge Framework
          3. Theories of Skill Acquisition
             1. A Production System Model
             2. A Connectionist Model
          4. Transfer of Learning
             1. Views of Transfer
             2. Part-Whole Transfer
       3. Expert Performance
          1. Distinctions between Experts and Novices
       4. Naturalistic decision Making
       5. Expert Systems
          1. Characteristics of Expert Systems
             1. Knowledge Base
             2. Inference Engine
             3. User Interface
          2. Human Factors Issues
             1. Selecting the Task
             2. Representation of Knowledge
             3. Interface Design
             4. Validating the System
          3. Example Systems
             1. Desplate
             2. Aldes
       6. Summary
       7. Recommended Readings
12. PART IV Action Factors And Their Applications
    1. Chapter 13 Response Selection and Principles of Compatibility
       1. Introduction
       2. Simple Reactions
       3. Choice Reactions
          1. Speed– Accuracy Tradeoff
          2. Temporal Uncertainty
          3. Stimulus-Response Uncertainty
       4. Principles of Compatibility
          1. Stimulus-Response Compatibility
          2. Relative Location Coding
          3. Theoretical Interpretations
          4. S-C-R Compatibility
          5. Practice and Response Selection
       5. Irrelevant Stimuli
       6. Dual-Task and Sequential Performance
          1. Psychological Refractory Period Effect
          2. Stimulus and Response Repetition
       7. Preferences for controlling Actions
          1. Grip Patterns
          2. Population Stereotypes
       8. Summary
       9. Recommended Readings
    2. Chapter 14 Control of Movement and Learning of Motor Skill
       1. Introduction
       2. Physiological Foundations of Movement
          1. The Musculoskeletal System
          2. Control of Movement
          3. Mass-Spring Property and Motor Unit
          4. Spinal Control
          5. Control by the Brain
       3. Control of Action
          1. Closed-Loop Control
          2. Open-Loop Control
          3. Implications
          4. Invariant Characteristics
          5. Modular Organization
          6. Hierarchical Arrangement
          7. Role of Feedback
          8. Aimed Movements
             1. Fitts’s Law
             2. Application
             3. Visual Feedback
             4. Bimanual Control
             5. Grasping and Intercepting Objects
          9. Other Aspects of Motor Control
             1. Posture
             2. Locomotion
             3. Eye and Head Movements
             4. Motor Learning
          10. Conditions and Schedules of Practice and Training
          11. Amount of Practice
          12. Fatigue and Practice
          13. Distribution of Practice
          14. Variability of Practice
          15. Mental Practice
       4. Training with Simulators
       5. Feedback and Skill Acquisition
          1. Knowledge of Performance
             1. Precision of KR
             2. Frequency of KR
             3. Delay of KR
             4. KR and Self-Control
             5. Role of KR
             6. Knowledge of Performance
          2. Observational Learning
       6. Summary
       7. Recommended Readings
    3. Chapter 15 Controls and Controlling Actions
       1. Introduction
       2. Control Features
          1. Basic Dimensions
          2. Control Resistance
             1. Types of Resistance
             2. Performance and Resistance
          3. Manipulation– Outcome Relations
             1. Tracking Tasks
             2. Deadspace and Backlash
             3. Control– Display Ratio
             4. Control System Order
       3. Control Panels
          1. Coding of Controls
             1. Location Coding
             2. Labels
             3. Color Coding
             4. Shape Coding
             5. Size Coding
             6. Texture Coding
             7. Other Codes
          2. Control Arrangements
          3. Preventing Accidental Operation
       4. Specific Controls
          1. Hand-Operated Controls
             1. Pushbutton and Toggle Switches
             2. Rotary Selector Switches and Knobs
             3. Multifunction Controls
          2. Foot-Operated Controls
          3. Specialized Controls
             1. Speech Controls
             2. Gaze-Based and Head-Movement Controls
             3. Gesture-Based Control
             4. Teleoperation
       5. Summary
       6. Recommended Readings
13. PART V Environmental Factors And Their Applications
    1. Chapter 16 Anthropometrics and Workspace Design
       1. Introduction
       2. Engineering Anthropometry
          1. Anthropometric Measurement
          2. Sources of Anthropometric Data
          3. Biomechanical Factors
       3. Cumulative Trauma Disorders
       4. Hand Tools
          1. Design Principles for Hand Tools
             1. Bend the handle, not the wrist
             2. Allow an Optimal Grip
             3. Use Compressible Grip Surfaces
             4. An Example Design Problem
          2. Manual or Power Tools
          3. Additional Principles
       5. Manual Materials Handling
          1. Lifting and Lowering
          2. Carrying and Push/Pulling
       6. Workspace Design
          1. Working Position
          2. Seating
          3. Positioning of Visual Displays
          4. Positioning of Controls and Objects
          5. Steps in Workspace Design
       7. Summary
       8. Recommended Readings
    2. Chapter 17 Environmental Ergonomics
       1. Introduction
       2. Lighting
          1. Light Measurement
          2. Light Sources
             1. Daylighting
             2. Artificial Lighting
          3. Illumination and Performance
          4. Glare
       3. Noise
          1. Noise Measurement
          2. Noise Level and Performance
          3. Hearing Loss
          4. Noise Reduction
       4. Vibration
          1. Whole-Body Vibration
          2. Segmental Vibration
       5. Thermal Comfort and Air Quality
       6. Stress
          1. General Adaptation Syndrome and Stressors
          2. Occupational Stress
       7. Summary
       8. Recommended Readings
    3. Chapter 18 Human Resource Management and Macroergonomics
       1. Introduction
       2. The Individual Employee
          1. Job Analysis and Design
          2. Personnel Selection
          3. Training
          4. On-the-job training
          5. On-site and off-site training
          6. Performance Appraisal
          7. Circadian Rhythms and Work Schedules
          8. Circadian rhythms
          9. Work schedules
       3. Interactions Among Employees
          1. Personal Space
          2. Territoriality
          3. Crowding and Privacy
          4. Office Space and Arrangement
          5. Traditional offices
          6. Open-plan offices
       4. Interactions Between Organizational Groups
          1. Communication in Organizations
          2. Employee Participation
          3. Organizational Development
       5. Summary
       6. Recommended Readings
    4. Chapter 19 The Practice of Human Factors
       1. Introduction
       2. System Development
          1. Making the Case for Human Factors
             1. Occupational Ergonomics Programs
             2. System and Product Development
          2. The System Development Process
             1. Phases
             2. Facilitating Human Factors Inputs
       3. Cognitive and Physical Models of Human Performance
          1. Engineering Models of Human Performance
             1. Cognitive Models
             2. Digital Human Models
          2. Integrative Cognitive Architectures
          3. Control Theory Models
       4. Forensic Human Factors
          1. Liability
          2. Expert Testimony
       5. Human Factors and Society
       6. Recommended Readings
    5. Appendix I
    6. Appendix II
    7. Appendix III
    8. Glossary
    9. References
    10. List of Credits
    11. Index