
Introduction 3
The machine instructions of modern computers consist of one or more bytes – group of eight bits. For
example, some typical binary instructions for 8086 CPU chip are:
binary code Mnemonic opcode instr length (bytes)
11111000 clc 1
00000000 11000001 add al, cl 2
Obviously, if one has to program in such a language, it is going to be very tedious, time-consuming
and error-prone. Another difficulty would be while loading such a binary program from our paper to
the memory of the computer.
In the old days of computer technology, the initial boot program (IPL), which loads a operating
system from some auxiliary memory to ...