Critical Systems Thinking and the Management of Complexity

2 The Physical Sciences and the Scientific Method

If we possessed a thorough knowledge of all the parts of the seed of any species of animal (e.g. man), we could from that alone, by reasons entirely mathematical and certain, deduce the whole figure and conformation of each of its members

(Descartes, Oeuvres 1897, iv, 494, originally from the 1630s)

2.1 Introduction

Newton's Principia (1687) set out his laws of motion, his theory of universal gravitation, and a new cosmology. It was the apotheosis of the Scientific Revolution, which had begun with Copernicus' challenge to Ptolemy's earth‐centered model of the universe. That revolution produced a huge growth of knowledge in fields such as mathematics, physics, astronomy, chemistry, and biology. To many scientists, it seemed that everything would soon be known. Further, the technologies that stemmed from the advances in science transformed the world in which we live. There were revolutions in agriculture and industry leading to massive increases in productivity and the rapid growth of urbanization. These, together with better prevention and treatment of disease, led to population growth and longer life expectancy. Roads were improved, canals and railways were built, and shipping lines developed, increasing trade and making the world a smaller place. Despite frequent wars and the continuance of poverty, it seemed that progress toward a better society was being made and that this would continue.

The achievements of science ...