book

Electric Power Transmission and Distribution

by S. Sivanagaraju, S. Satyanarayana

July 2008

Intermediate to advanced

625 pages

17h 13m

English

Pearson India

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Cover
Title Page
Contents
Dedication
Preface
1: Transmission and Distribution: AN Introduction
1.1 - OVERVIEW1.2 - VARIOUS LEVELS OF POWER TRANSMISSION1.3 - CONVENTIONAL SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY1.3.1 - Hydro Power Stations1.3.2 - Thermal Power Stations1.3.3 - Nuclear Power Stations1.3.4 - Diesel Power Stations1.4 - LOAD FORECASTING1.4.1 - Purpose of Load Forecasting1.4.2 - Classification of Load Forecasting1.4.3 - Forecasting Procedure1.4.4 - Load Characteristics1.5 - LOAD MODELLING1.5.1 - Characteristics of Load Models1.6 - STAR-CONNECTED LOADS1.6.1 - Constant Power Model1.6.2 - Constant Current Model1.6.3 - Constant Impedance Model1.7 - DEREGULATION1.7.1 - Need for Restructuring1.7.2 - Motivation for Restructuring the Power Industry1.8 - DISTRIBUTION AUTOMATION
2: Transmission-Line Parameters
2.1 - INTRODUCTION2.2 - CONDUCTOR MATERIALS2.3 - TYPES OF CONDUCTORS2.4 - BUNDLED CONDUCTORS2.5 - RESISTANCE2.6 - CURRENT DISTORTION EFFECT2.6.1 - Skin Effect2.6.2 - Proximity Effect2.6.3 - Spirality Effect2.7 - INDUCTANCE2.7.1 - Inductance of a Conductor Due to Internal Flux2.7.2 - Inductance of a Conductor Due to External Flux2.8 - INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE TWO-WIRE SYSTEM2.9 - FLUX LINKAGES WITH ONE SUB-CONDUCTOR OF A COMPOSITE CONDUCTOR2.10 - INDUCTANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE SYSTEM (WITH COMPOSITE CONDUCTORS)2.11 - INDUCTANCE OF THREE-PHASE LINES2.11.1 - Equivalent (Symmetrical) Spacing2.11.2 - Unsymmetrical Spacing (Untransposed)2.11.3 - Transposition of Overhead Lines2.11.4 - Unsymmetrical Spacing (Transposed)2.12 - INDUCTANCE OF THREE-PHASE DOUBLE CIRCUIT LINE2.12.1 - Inductance of Three-Phase Double-Circuit Line with Symmetrical Spacing (Hexagonal)2.12.2 - Inductance of a Three-Phase Transposed Double-Circuit Line with Unsymmetrical Spacing2.13 - CAPACITANCE2.14 - POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS DUE TO A CHARGE2.15 - CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE-PHASE LINE (TWO-WIRE LINE)2.16 - POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO CONDUCTORS OF A GROUP OF CHARGED CONDUCTORS2.17 - CAPACITANCE OF THREE-PHASE LINES2.17.1 - Equilateral Spacing2.17.2 - Capacitance of an Unsymmetrical Three-Phase System (Transposed)2.18 - CAPACITANCE OF A THREE-PHASE DOUBLE-CIRCUIT LINE2.18.1 - Hexagonal Spacing2.18.2 - Flat Vertical Spacing (Unsymmetrical Spacing)2.19 - EFFECT OF EARTH ON TRANSMISSION LINE CAPACITANCE2.19.1 - Capacitance of a Single Conductor2.19.2 - Capacitance of a Single-Phase Transmission Line2.19.3 - Capacitance of Three-Phase Line
3: Performance of Short and Medium Transmission Lines
3.1 - INTRODUCTION3.2 - REPRESENTATION OF LINES3.3 - CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION LINES3.4 - SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE3.4.1 - Effect of Power Factor On Regulation and Efficiency3.5 - GENERALISED NETWORK CONSTANTS3.6 - A, B, C, D CONSTANTS FOR SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES3.7 - MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINE3.7.1 - Load End Capacitance Method3.7.2 - Nominal-T Method3.7.3 - Nominal-π Method
4: Performance of Long Transmission Lines
4.1 - INTRODUCTION4.2 - RIGOROUS SOLUTION4.3 - INTERPRETATION OF THE LONG LINE EQUATIONS4.3.1 - Propagation Constant4.3.2 - Wave Length and Velocity of Propagation4.4 - EVALUATION OF TRANSMISSION LINE CONSTANTS4.5 - REGULATION4.6 - EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT REPRESENTATION OF LONG LINES4.6.1 - Representation of a Long Line by Equivalent- π Model4.6.2 - Representation of a Long Line by Equivalent-T Model4.7 - TUNED TRANSMISSION LINES4.8 - CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE4.9 - SURGE IMPEDANCE LOADING (SIL)4.10 - FERRANTI EFFECT4.11 - CONSTANT VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION4.12 - CHARGING CURRENT IN LINES4.12.1 - Power Loss Due to Charging Current (or Open-Circuited Line)4.13 - LINE LOADABILITY4.14 - POWER FLOW THROUGH A TRANSMISSION LINE4.15 - CIRCLE DIAGRAM4.15.1 - Receiving-End Phasor Diagram4.15.2 - Receiving-End Power Circle Diagram4.15.3 - Analytical Method for Receiving-End Power Circle Diagram4.15.4 - Sending-End Power Circle Diagram4.15.5 - Analytical Method for Sending-End Power Circle Diagram
5: Transmission Line Transients
5.1 - INTRODUCTION5.2 - TYPES OF SYSTEM TRANSIENTS5.3 - TRAVELLING WAVES ON A TRANSMISSION LINE5.4 - THE WAVE EQUATION5.5 - EVALUATION OF SURGE IMPEDANCE5.6 - IMPORTANCE OF SURGE IMPEDANCE5.7 - TRAVELLING WAVE5.8 - EVALUATION OF VELOCITY OF WAVE PROPAGATION5.9 - REFLECTION AND REFRACTION COEFFICIENT (LINE TERMINATED THROUGH A RESISTANCE)5.9.1 - Line Open-Circuited at the Receiving End5.9.2 - Line Short-Circuited at the Receiving End5.10 - LINE CONNECTED TO A CABLE5.11 - REFLECTION AND REFRACTION AT A T-JUNCTION5.12 - REACTANCE TERMINATION5.12.1 - Line Terminated Through Capacitance5.12.2 - Line Terminated Through Inductance5.13 - BEWLEY'S LATTICE DIAGRAM5.14 - ATTENUATION OF TRAVELLING WAVES

6: Corona
6.1 - INTRODUCTION6.2 - THEORY OF CORONA FORMATION (CORONA DISCHARGE)6.3 - ELECTRIC STRESS6.4 - CRITICAL DISRUPTIVE VOLTAGE6.5 - VISUAL CRITICAL VOLTAGE6.6 - POWER LOSS DUE TO CORONA6.7 - FACTORS AFFECTING CORONA LOSS6.7.1 - Electrical Factors6.7.2 - Atmospheric Factors6.7.3 - Factors Related to the Conductors6.8 - METHODS FOR REDUCING CORONA LOSS6.9 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CORONA6.10 - EFFECT OF CORONA ON LINE DESIGN6.11 - RADIO INTERFERENCE6.12 - AUDIO NOISE6.13 - INTERFERENCE WITH COMMUNICATION LINES6.13.1 - Electromagnetic Effect6.13.2 - Electrostatic Effect6.14 - CORONA PHENOMENA IN HVDC LINES
7: Mechanical Design of Transmission Line
7.1 - INTRODUCTION7.2 - FACTORS AFFECTING MECHANICAL DESIGN7.3 - LINE SUPPORTS7.3.1 - Wooden Poles7.3.2 - Tubular Steel Poles7.3.3 - RCC Poles7.3.4 - Latticed Steel Towers7.4 - SAG7.4.1 - Calculation of Sag at Equal Supports7.4.2 - Effect of Ice Covering and Wind Pressure7.4.3 - Safety Factor7.4.4 - Calculation of Sag at Different Level Supports7.5 - STRINGING CHART7.6 - EFFECTS AND PREVENTION OF VIBRATIONS (VIBRATIONS AND DAMPERS)7.7 - SAG TEMPLATE7.8 - CONDUCTOR SPACING AND GROUND CLEARANCE
8: Overhead Line Insulators
8.1 - INTRODUCTION8.2 - INSULATOR MATERIALS8.3 - TYPES OF INSULATORS8.3.1 - Pin Type Insulators8.3.2 - Suspension Type Insulator8.3.3 - Strain Insulator8.3.4 - Shackle Type Insulator8.4 - POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION OVER A STRING OF SUSPENSION INSULATORS8.4.1 - Mathematical Expression for Voltage Distribution8.5 - STRING EFFICIENCY8.6 - METHODS OF IMPROVING STRING EFFICIENCY8.6.1 - Selection of m8.6.2 - Grading of Units8.6.3 - Guard Ring or Static Shielding8.7 - ARCING HORN8.8 - TESTING OF INSULATORS8.8.1 - Flashover Tests8.8.2 - Performance Test8.8.3 - Routine Tests8.9 - CAUSES OF FAILURE OF INSULATORS
9: Underground Cables
9.1 - INTRODUCTION9.2 - GENERAL CONSTRUCTION OF A CABLE9.3 - TYPES OF CABLES9.3.1 - Low Tension Cables9.3.2 - High Tension Cables9.3.3 - Super Tension Cables9.3.4 - Extra High Tension Cables9.4 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF UNDERGROUND CABLES OVER OVERHEAD LINES9.5 - PROPERTIES OF INSULATING MATERIALS FOR CABLES9.5.1 - Insulating Materials9.6 - INSULATION RESISTANCE OF CABLES9.7 - CAPACITANCE OF A SINGLE-CORE CABLE9.8 - DIELECTRIC STRESS IN A CABLE9.9 - ECONOMICAL CORE DIAMETER9.10 - GRADING OF CABLES9.10.1 - Capacitance Grading9.10.2 - Intersheath Grading9.10.3 - Practical Aspects of Cable Grading9.11 - POWER FACTOR IN CABLES (DIELECTRIC POWER FACTOR)9.12 - CAPACITANCE OF A THREE-CORE CABLE9.12.1 - Measurement of Cc and Cs9.13 - HEATING OF CABLES9.13.1 - Generation of Heat Within the Cables9.14 - THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS9.14.1 - Current Capacity9.15 - TESTING OF CABLES9.15.1 - Acceptance Tests at Works9.15.2 - Sample Tests at Working9.15.3 - Performance Tests9.15.4 - Tests On Oil-Filled and Gas-Filled Cables9.15.5 - Tests When Installed9.15.6 - Tests On Pressurized Cables9.16 - LAYING OF CABLES9.16.1 - Direct System9.16.2 - Draw-In System9.16.3 - Solid Systems9.17 - CABLE FAULTS9.18 - DETERMINATION OF MAXIMUM CURRENT CARRYING CAPACITY OF CABLES
10: Power Factor Improvement
10.1 - INTRODUCTION10.2 - POWER FACTOR10.2.1 - Causes of Low Power Factor10.2.2 - Effects or Disadvantages of Low Power Factor10.3 - ADVANTAGES OF POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT10.4 - METHODS OF IMPROVING POWER FACTOR10.4.1 - Static Capacitor10.4.2 - Synchronous Condenser10.4.3 - Phase Advancers10.5 - MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR WHEN THE KILOWATT DEMAND IS CONSTANT10.6 - MOST ECONOMICAL POWER FACTOR WHEN THE kVA MAXIMUM DEMAND IS CONSTANT
11: Voltage Control
11.1 - INTRODUCTION11.2 - NECESSITY OF VOLTAGE CONTROL11.3 - GENERATION AND ABSORPTION OF REACTIVE POWER11.4 - LOCATION OF VOLTAGE CONTROL EQUIPMENT11.5 - METHODS OF VOLTAGE CONTROL11.5.1 - Excitation Control11.5.2 - Shunt Capacitors and Reactors11.5.3 - Series Capacitors11.5.4 - Tap Changing Transformers11.5.5 - Booster Transformers11.5.6 - Synchronous Condensers11.6 - RATING OF SYNCHRONOUS PHASE MODIFIER
12: Electric Power Supply Systems
12.1 - INTRODUCTION12.2 - COMPARISON OF CONDUCTOR EFFICIENCIES FOR VARIOUS SYSTEMS12.2.1 - Overhead Lines12.2.2 - Cable Systems12.3 - CHOICE OF SYSTEM FREQUENCY12.4 - CHOICE OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE12.5 - ADVANTAGES OF HIGH-VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION12.6 - EFFECT OF SUPPLY VOLTAGE12.7 - ECONOMIC SIZE OF CONDUCTOR (KELVIN'S LAW)12.7.1 - Modification of Kelvin's Law12.7.2 - Practical Limitations to the Application of Kelvin's Law
13: Substations
13.1 - INTRODUCTION13.2 - FACTORS GOVERNING THE SELECTION OF SITE13.3 - CLASSIFICATION OF SUBSTATION13.3.1 - According to Service13.3.2 - According to Design13.4 - MERITS AND DEMERITS OF INDOOR AND OUTDOOR SUBSTATIONS13.5 - SUBSTATION EQUIPMENT13.6 - TYPES OF BUS BAR ARRANGEMENTS13.6.1 - Single Bus Bar13.6.2 - Single-Bus Bar System with Sectionalization13.6.3 - Double Bus Bar with Single Breaker13.6.4 - Double Bus Bar with Two Circuit Breakers13.6.5 - Breakers and a Half with Two Main Buses13.6.6 - Main and Transfer Bus Bar13.6.7 - Double Bus Bar with Bypass Isolator13.6.8 - Ring Bus13.7 - POLE AND PLINTH-MOUNTED TRANSFORMER SUBSTATIONS13.8 - OPTIMAL SUBSTATION LOCATION13.8.1 - Perpendicular Bisector Rule13.9 - BASIC TERMS OF EARTHING13.10 - GROUNDING OR NEUTRAL EARTHING13.11 - EARTHING OF SUBSTATIONS13.12 - METHODS OF NEUTRAL GROUNDING13.12.1 - Solid Grounding or Effective Grounding13.12.2 - Resistance Grounding13.12.3 - Reactance Grounding13.12.4 - Peterson-Coil Grounding13.12.5 - Grounding Transformer13.13 - GROUNDING GRID
14: Distribution Systems
14.1 - INTRODUCTION14.2 - PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DISTRIBUTION14.2.1 - Primary Distribution14.2.2 - Secondary Distribution14.3 - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS IN A DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM14.4 - DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM LOSSES14.4.1 - Factors Effecting Distribution-System Losses14.4.2 - Methods for the Reduction of Line Losses14.5 - CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM14.5.1 - Type of Current14.5.2 - Type of Construction14.5.3 - Type of Service14.5.4 - Number of Wires14.5.5 - Scheme of Connection14.6 - RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM14.7 - RING OR LOOP DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM14.8 - INTERCONNECTED DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM14.9 - DC DISTRIBUTION14.9.1 - Distributor Fed at One End with Concentrated Loads14.9.2 - Distributor Fed at Both Ends with Concentrated Loads14.9.3 - Uniformly Loaded Distributor Fed at One End14.9.4 - Uniformly Distributed Load Fed at Both Ends at the Same Voltage14.9.5 - Uniformly Distributed Load Fed at Both Ends at Different Voltages14.10 - RING DISTRIBUTION14.10.1 - Advantages of Using Interconnector14.11 - STEPPED DISTRIBUTOR14.12 - AC DISTRIBUTION14.12.1 - Power Factor Referred to the Receiving-End14.12.2 - Power Factor Referred to Respective Load Voltages14.13 - AC THREE-PHASE DISTRIBUTION
15: Ehv and Hvdc Transmission Lines
15.1 - INTRODUCTION15.2 - NEED OF EHV TRANSMISSION LINES15.3 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF EHV LINES15.4 - METHODS OF INCREASING TRANSMISSION CAPABILITY OF EHV LINES15.5 - HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM15.6 - COMPARISON BETWEEN AC AND DC TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS15.6.1 - Economic Advantages15.6.2 - Technical Advantages15.7 - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC SYSTEMS15.8 - HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM15.8.1 - Monopolar Link15.8.2 - Bipolar Link15.8.3 - Homopolar Link15.9 - RECTIFICATION15.10 - THREE-PHASE BRIDGE CONVERTER15.11 - INVERSION15.12 - COMPONENTS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM15.13 - HARMONIC FILTERS15.14 - APPLICATION OF HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
16: Flexible AC Transmission Systems
16.1 - INTRODUCTION16.2 - FACTS16.3 - FACTS CONTROLLERS16.3.1 - Shunt-Connected Controllers16.3.2 - Series-Connected Controllers16.3.3 - Combined Shunt and Series-Connected Controllers16.4 - CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS16.4.1 - FACTS Devices16.4.2 - Benefits of Control of Power Systems16.4.3 - FACTS Technology: Opportunities16.5 - BASIC RELATIONSHIP FOR POWER-FLOW CONTROL16.5.1 - Shunt Compensator16.5.2 - Thyristor-Controlled Reactor (TCR)16.5.3 - Thyristor-Switched Capacitor (TSC)16.5.4 - Series Compensator16.5.5 - Unified Power-Flow Controller (UPFC)16.6 - “FACTS” FOR MINIMIZING GRID INVESTMENTS16.7 - VOLTAGE STABILITY16.7.1 - Voltage Stability – What is it?16.7.2 - Derivation of Voltage Stability Index
Appendix 1: Datasheets
Appendix 2: Answers to Problems
Appendix 3: Answers to Odd Questions
Appendix 4: Solutions Using MATLAB Programs
Glossary
Bibliography
Acknowledgement
Copyright

Content preview from Electric Power Transmission and Distribution

Appendix 2

ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS

CHAPTER 2

1.24 mH/km
1.32 mH/km
1.19 mH/km, 0.3755 Ω/km
1.159 mH/km
L_a = 1.3012 – j0.055 mH/km, L_b = 1.2693 + j0 mH/km,

L_c = 1.3012 + j0.0552 mH/km
0.5586 mH/km
4.527 μF
10.4021 pp/km
2.9775 μF
0.0184 μF/km
0.0173 μF/km
8.7917 pF/km

CHAPTER 3

1. 31.92 kV,
2. 74.09 A,
3. 97.7%
1. 2.1%,
2. 0.895 lagging,
3. 98.6%
1. 23.85 kV,
2. 7.56%,
3. 95%
4.99%, 94.7%
34.485 kV, 1760.03
1. A = D = (0.99475 + j0.00225), B = (15 + j35) Ω, C = (–0.0000003 + j0.000299) S
2. 122.796 kV,
3. 12.22%,
4. 93.93%

CHAPTER 4

At full load: (i) 275.65 kV, (ii) 498.72 A, (iii) 30%

At no load: (i) 212 kV, (ii)438.78 A,(iii)–3.4%
186.849 kV, 177.82 A, 0.04013 lead
269.636 kV, 29.44%
A = D = (0.9754 + j0.0014605), B = (3.688542 + j62.31818) Ω,C = (–0.3836 × ...

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Electric Power Transmission and Distribution

by S. Sivanagaraju, S. Satyanarayana