8.1 - Introduction8.2 - Resistance Thermometers8.2.1 - Self-Heating8.2.2 - Advantages of Wire Resistance Thermometers8.2.3 - Disadvantages8.3 - Semiconducting-Resistance Temperature Transducers (Thermistors)8.3.1 - Circuit Employed8.3.2 - Advantages8.3.3 - Disadvantages8.4 - Hot Wire Anemometer8.4.1 - Constant Current Type8.4.2 - Measurement of Direction of Average Flow8.5 - Other Variable Resistance Transducers8.5.1 - Contact Pressure Transducer8.5.2 - Humidity Measurement8.5.3 - Light8.6 - Variable Inductance Transducers8.6.1 - Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)8.6.2 - Applications of LVDT8.6.3 - LVDT Load Cells8.7 - Synchros8.8 - Variable Reluctance Accelerometer8.8.1 - Microsyn8.9 - Temperature Measurement8.9.1 - Electric Methods8.9.2 - Electrical Methods8.10 - Thermocouples8.10.1 - Thermocouple Junction8.10.2 - Thermocouple Insulation8.10.3 - Soldered, Drawn, or Rolled Sheathed Thermocouple Construction8.10.4 - Disposable-Tip Thermocouples8.10.5 - Homogeneity of Thermocouple Wires8.10.6 - Installation of Thermocouples8.10.7 - Cold Junction Compensation8.10.8 - Resistance Thermometry8.11 - Platinum Resistance Thermometers8.12 - Special Resistance Thermometer8.12.1 - Performance and Testing Procedure8.12.2 - Insulation Resistance8.12.3 - Vibration Resistance8.13 - Thermistors8.13.1 - Thermistor Construction Techniques8.13.2 - Thermistor Performance Characteristics8.13.3 - Applications of Thermistor8.13.4 - Sensistors8.14 - Digital Temperature-Sensing System8.15 - Miscellaneous Transducers8.15.1 - Flow Measurements8.15.2 - Ultrasonic Flow Meters8.15.3 - Electromagnetic Flow Meter8.15.4 - Theory of Head Flow Meters8.15.5 - Various Tap Connections8.15.6 - Advantages and Limitations8.15.7 - Characteristics of Head Flow Meters8.16 - Area Flow Meters8.16.1 - Rotameters8.16.2 - Piston-Type Area Meter8.16.3 - Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA)8.17 - Positive Displacement Meters8.17.1 - Basic Requirements8.17.2 - Nutating Piston Meters8.17.3 - Rotating Meters8.17.4 - Oscillating Piston Meters8.18 - Magnetic Flow Meter8.18.1 - Flow Meter Requirements8.19 - Variable Capacitance Transducers8.19.1 - Advantages of Capacitance Transducers8.19.2 - Practical Capacitor Pickups8.19.3 - Feedback-Type Capacitance Pickup8.19.4 - Carbon Microphone8.19.5 - Circuitry for Capacitance Transducers8.19.6 - Frequency-Modulating Oscillator Circuit8.19.7 - Circuits Using DC Excitation8.19.8 - AC Bridges for Amplitude Modulation8.19.9 - Pulsewidth-Modulating Circuit8.20 - Piezoelectric Transducer8.20.1 - Materials8.20.2 - Equivalent Circuit8.20.3 - Piezoelectric Coefficients8.20.4 - Modes of Deformation8.20.5 - Multiple Arrangements (Stacks)8.20.6 - Bimorphs8.20.7 - Bimorph Twisters8.20.8 - General Form of Piezoelectric Transducers8.20.9 - Available Typical Piezoelectric Accelerometers8.20.10 - Shock Accelerometer8.20.11 - Environmental Effects8.21 - Magnetostrictive Transducers8.21.1 - Magnetostrictive Materials8.21.2 - Practical Forms of Transducers8.21.3 - Magnetostrictive Torque Transducers8.21.4 - Errors8.21.5 - Temperature8.21.6 - Variation of Supply Voltage8.21.7 - Eddy Currents8.21.8 - Input Impedance8.22 - Liquid-Level Measurement8.22.1 - Direct Methods8.22.2 - Indirect Liquid-Level Measurement8.22.3 - Capacitance-Level Gauge8.23 - Ultrasonic-Level Gauge8.24 - Measurement of Humidity and Moisture8.25 - Photoconductive Cells8.26 - Photo Pulse Pickup8.27 - Digital Encoders and Encoder Transducers8.27.1 - Shaft Position Encoders8.27.2 - Encoder Transducers8.28 - Fibre Optic Displacement Transducer8.28.1 - Absolute Motion Devices8.28.3 - Measurement of Velocity8.28.4 - Translational Velocity Transducer Moving Coil Pickup8.29 - DC Tachometer Generators for Rotary Velocity Measurement8.29.1 - AC Tachogenerator for Rotary Velocity Measurement8.30 - Force Measurements8.30.1 - Balance8.30.2 - Elastic Force Devices8.31 - Electromechanical Methods8.32 - Measurement of Pressure8.32.1 - Moderate Pressure Measurement8.32.2 - Manometers8.33 - Elastic Transducers8.34 - High-Pressure Measurement8.35 - Low-Pressure Measurement (Vacuum Measurement)8.35.1 - Thermal Conductivity Gauge or Pirani Gauge8.36 - Temperature Measurements8.37 - Data Acquisition Systems8.38 - Summary