book

The VES Handbook of Visual Effects, 2nd Edition

by Susan Zwerman, Jeffrey A. Okun

July 2014

Intermediate to advanced

950 pages

31h 58m

English

Routledge

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Why Use Visual Effects?

OverviewBreaking Down a Script—BudgetingBallpark BudgetMore Detailed BudgetsBiddingPlate PhotographyTemp ScreeningsReviewing BidsContractsRebidding during ShootingRebidding in PostMonitoring the Budget and ScheduleKeeping the Budget DownWorking with the Director and ProducerDemo ReelThe MeetingMoving ForwardProduction DepartmentsProduction DesignCameraSpecial EffectsStuntsWardrobeMakeupProductionVisual EffectsEditorialLocationsProduction MeetingDesigning Visual Effects ShotsGuidelines for DirectorsStoryboardsPrevisObjective of the ShotConcept ArtContinuityPhotorealismOriginal ConceptsBudgetReality and MagicCamera AnglesFramingScaleDetailSpeedScaled ImagesDepth of FieldSequence of ShotsCamera MotionLess Is MoreAction PacingCG CharactersCreatures and Character DesignPowers of 10 ShotsVisual Effects TechniquesTechnique ConsiderationsAdditional Suggestions for Determining TechniquesWhat is Previs?Development of Previs TechniquesHistory and BackgroundThe Applications of Previs: Who Benefits From it and How?PostvisCautions and Suggestions for Good PracticeThe Perils of Previs!Passing the Work OnThe Role of the VFX Supervisor in PrevisPrevis: Advanced TechniquesEnvironment InputCharacter InputCamera InputGaming TechniquesOn-Set PrevisLighting Previs3D Stereo PrevisVirtual ProductionCamera Angle ProjectionDrawing What the Lens Sees
Working on SetCommon Types of Special EffectsWhat Are Special Effects?A Brief History of Special EffectsThe Special Effects SupervisorWorking with the Visual EffectsVisual Effects in Service to SFXSpecial Effects Design and PlanningStoryboards and PrevisThe Elements: Rain, Wind, and Snow and IceSmoke, Fire, and PyrotechnicsMechanical EffectsFlying Wire Rigs and StuntsSafetyFront and Rear Projection Systems for Visual EffectsRear ProjectionFront Projection (Blue or Green Screens and Picture Imagery)Rear Projection EquipmentFront Projection EquipmentLarge-Area Emissive Displays (LCD, LED, Plasma, and Jumbotron Screens)Greenscreen and Bluescreen PhotographyOverviewFunction of the BackingNegative Scanning and Digital ConversionBacking Uniformity and Screen CorrectionThe Alpha ChannelThe Processed ForegroundThe CompositeRecommended Specifications and PracticesHow to Expose a Green Screen Shot, and WhySetting Screen BrightnessChoosing the Backing ColorFloor Shots, Virtual SetsForeground LightingControlling Spill LightLighting Virtual SetsTracking MarkersOn-Set PreviewCameras for Bluescreen or Greenscreen PhotographyUnderwater PhotographyWorking with the CinematographerCompositing SoftwareOn-Set Data AcquisitionCamera ReportTracking MarkersProps for the ActorsCyberscanningDigital PhotosLidar/Laser ScanningLens Distortion ChartsHDRI and Chrome BallsLidar Scanning and AcquisitionOn-Set 3D Scanning SystemsOn-Set Data Acquisition3D Scanning SystemsPrepping the Actors for ScanningScanning Props or CarsReview All That Has Been Scanned3D Scanning Post-ProductionLighting DataGathering Lighting DataBeware of False Savings!Using Conventional Still CamerasReference Shooting ConsiderationsClean PlatesShooting the Clean PlateLocked-Off CameraMoving CameraOther IssuesPost-ProcessAlternates without Clean PlatesOther Uses for Clean PlatesMonster SticksOn-Set Animation Capture: Witness Cam (IBMC)Wireless Nonvideo Motion CaptureFactors Affecting Witness CamerasDealing with the Data in Post-ProductionReal-Time Visual Effects and Camera Tracking“Near” Real-Time as a Step Towards “Instantaneous”The Future for Real-Time Visual EffectsTriangulation as a Method of Recording Camera DataCamera/Subject Positional InformationBasics: The Tool KitBasics: Nodal PointPhotographic ReferenceHow to ProceedShooting Video as a ReferenceRules, Setup, and TestingDigital CinematographyDigital DefinitionsCCD vs. CMOSLook ManagementThe Recording SystemVFX PhotographyThe Camera ArrayDesigning an Array ShotTechniciansShoot DaySpecial TechniquesPostThe FutureFilming Live-Action Plates to be Used in VFXCamera Position (Station Point)Angle of ViewLighting ConsiderationsCamera TiltBackground QualityMoving PlatesScouting the Camera PositionsA Case StudyCamera CarsCamera Car Safety IssuesPurpose-Built Crane CarsVibration and Camera StabilizationRoad SpeedPrecautionsPanoramic RigsOn the WaterAir to AirCable SystemsShooting Elements for CompositingWhat Is an Element?Stock FootageTypes of ElementsGeneric versus Shot-Specific ElementsDetermining Element NeedsCheatingBackgroundsBlack BackgroundsLine-UpCamera Format ConsiderationsAssorted Methods for Shooting ElementsHigh-Speed Photography and Filming ElementsHigh-Speed PhotographyCamerasTechniciansDirector of PhotographyLightingApplicationLocking Down the CameraVideo AssistPostSupervising Motion ControlWhat Is Motion Control?Performance ChoreographyMultiple-Pass PhotographyScalingImport and Export of Camera Move DataThe DataTypes of Motion Control SystemsMotion Control SoftwareCamera TypesSync and PhaseDealing with ProductionAcquisition of Motion/Still Photographic Textures for Mapping onto CGPanoramic BackgroundsTiled StillsMotion Tiling and Synchronous PlatesPractical ConsiderationsStills for Textures and LightingStop-MotionEvolution of Stop-Motion PhotographyThe Time Required to Shoot in Stop-MotionPreparation before ShootingSetting Up a Shooting Space for Stop-MotionUse of Motion Control in Stop-MotionUseful CaveatsEvolution of a ShotUse of Stop-Motion in Visual EffectsWhat are Miniatures?What Are Miniatures and Why Are They Used?The Advantages and Disadvantages of Miniature EffectsExecution of PlanningDesign and Integration within the FilmPhotographic ContinuityMiniature CategoriesScale DeterminationsForced Perspective MiniaturesIn-Camera Compositing of Miniatures with Full-Scale Live-Action ActorsNodal Pans and TiltsForced PerspectiveMixed ScalesThe Fabrication of Miniature EffectsScale and Purpose Requirements of a MiniatureConstruction MaterialsThe Paint ProcessPrevisualization and MiniaturesThe Basic Standard ToolsIncorporation of Mechanical, Practical, and Pyrotechnic Effects with MiniaturesWater EffectsFire, Explosives, and CollapsingShooting Locations and ConditionsPhotography of Miniature Effects: Motion ControlWhat is Motion Control and What are its Benefits to Miniature Photography?Execution and Technique Using PrevisPhotographyPhotography of Miniature Effects: High-Speed PhotographyDepth of FieldPyrotechnicsSmoke, Fire, and WaterThe Use of Miniatures in the Digital WorldSpecial Effects for MiniaturesShrinking RealityScale ConsiderationsCameraWaterRainFireSmokeExplosionsBreakaways
What is Motion Capture?Is Motion Capture Right for a Project?The Mocap LookTechnical SpecificationsEntry PointBudgetWhich Technology is Right for a Project?Gauging a Project’s Needs and ConstraintsPassive Retroreflective OpticalActive OpticalInertialStructured LightDense Stereo ReconstructionBend SensorsPreparing for Motion CaptureActorsMotion Capture SuitsMarker Placement—BodyMarker Placement—FaceRigging for Motion CaptureShot ListHardwareThe StrobeMarkersLensesFilterImage SensorOnboard ProcessorInputs/OutputsSetupSoftwareAcquisitionCalibrationPost-ProcessingReconstructionLabelingGap FillingCleaningSolving Motion CaptureFacial Motion CaptureFacial Actor SurveyActor Survey—HardwareReference DataStatistical DataFacial RiggingFacial AcquisitionAudioFacial Motion Capture SolvingReal-Time Motion CaptureReal-Time UsesReal-Time LimitationsAlternate TechnologiesMotion Capture ResourcesVirtual ProductionWorld BuildingPrevisualizationOn-Set VisualizationVirtual Cinematography
How 3D WorksAccommodation and ConvergenceInteraxial SeparationToe-in versus Horizontal Image TranslationParallax or Depth BudgetPositive and Negative ParallaxFloating WindowsFix It in PostStereoscopic DesignThe Emerging Grammar of 3DCreative Use of DepthPrevisualizationAvoiding Painful 3DThe Aesthetic of ScaleCutting for 3DDesigning for Multiple Release FormatsImmersion-Based versus Convergence-Based StereoVirtual 3D PhotographyVirtual 3D Photography DefinedPros and Cons of Virtual 3D PhotographyMultiple-Camera RigsThe 3D Camera RigImplementing ConvergenceManipulating the Screen SurroundSpecial Cases for Virtual 3D PhotographyNative 3D Photography versus 2D to 3D ConversionOverall IssuesOn-Set IssuesPost-Production IssuesImage Quality IssuesOn-Set StereographyOverviewPre-ProductionOn the SetSecond UnitsVisual Effects2D to 3D ConversionDepth Creation PreparationVisual Analysis of 2D Depth CuesPre-Production and Previs for ConversionSource and Target PerspectiveShared Shots/Shared WorkflowsMain Stages of 2D-to-3D ConversionMajor 2D-to-3D Conversion WorkflowsSpecial CasesReprojection Mapping WorkflowPixel Displacement or Pixel ShiftingOther 2D-to-3D Conversion WorkflowsIs “Real” Always Right?Stereoscopic Visual EffectsPrepping for the Third DimensionShooting the Third DimensionVisual Effects in the Third DimensionPhotographed ElementsAccuracy and Attention to DetailArtistic Skill LevelData ManagementStereoscopic Digital Intermediate WorkflowStereoscopic 3D Process MilestonesViewing 3D DailiesProjection Screens for Stereoscopic Viewing3D Editorial ProcessesStereoscopic 3D ConformingData Workflow2D versus 3D GradingRealD Mastering ConsiderationsGeometry and Correction of Undesirable Binocular Disparity3D Stereo DeliverablesStereoscopic WindowThe Stereoscopic WindowPlacement of the Window in Relation to the 3D SceneWindow ViolationsWindow Placement LogicHow to Create a Stereoscopic WindowProducing Movies in Three DimensionsDevelopment—Getting the Green LightProduction—What to Look Out For
Resolution and Image Format ConsiderationsFormatsTransportResolutionAcademy Color Encoding System (ACES)ACES ComponentsACES BenefitsACES Color Space EncodingViewing ACESPreparations for Using ACESImage Compression/File Formats for Post-ProductionImage EncodingStill Image CompressionFile Formats4k+ Systems Theory Basics for Motion Picture ImagingPart 1: Resolution and SharpnessPart 2: Into the Digital RealmPart 3: Does 4k Look Better Than 2k?Part 4: Visual Perception Limitations for Large ScreensFilm Scanning and RecordingScanningRecordingColor ManagementThe Three GuidelinesDigital Color Image Encodings and Digital CamerasColor Management at the DesktopBringing Color Management to Film WorkflowsDigital IntermediateVFX EditorialEditing within a Shot: The Art of Pre-CompositingHow It Came to BeModern Day Tracking and Disseminating of InformationAs the Shot ChangesWrapping It UpEditorial Workflow in Feature AnimationIntroductionEditorial Crew Staffing and StructureEditorial Involvement with Feature Animation Production StagesCommunication with ArtistsStartingWorking with TeamsWorking GloballyReference and PerspectiveShot ProductionCommunicating with Artists in Other DepartmentsCompletionWhat Makes a Good Visual Effects Artist?The History of CompositingThe History of Optical TechniqueTraveling Matte Technique and the Digital AgeHistorical Notes on Blue ScreenFilm versus DigitalCompositing of Live-Action ElementsModern Digital CompositingScene TrackingRotoscoping and PaintRotoscopingDigital Painting and Plate ReconstructionMatte Paintings/Creative EnvironmentsMatte Paintings: Art of the Digital RealmWhat Is a Matte Painting?Matte Painting Pioneers and HistoryVisualizing the Matte Painting Shot in Pre-ProductionOn-Set Supervision for Matte Painting ShotsBasic Skills and Tricks of the TradeMiniatures and Computer-Generated SetsFinding the Best FrameRe-Projected Photo SurveyThe Need for Creative Compositing3D Matte Painting
Digital ModelingOverview: The Importance of ModelingTypes of ModelingModel Data TypesDevelopment of ModelsModeling for a Production PipelineEngineering Aspects for PolygonsEngineering Aspects for NURBSRigging and Animation RiggingRigging: What Is It?Animation RiggingDeformation RiggingTexturing and SurfacingThe Importance of Texture PaintingHard Surface ModelsCreature ModelsTypes of Geometry: Their Problems and BenefitsPrepping the Model to Be PaintedTexture CreationVarious Other Map-Driven EffectsTexture Painting in ProductionModel EditingDigital Hair/FurHair Generation ProcessGeneral Issues and SolutionsDigital FeathersMorphology of Real FeathersModeling Digital FeathersSimilarities between Hair and FeathersDifferences between Hair and FeathersGeneral Geometry InstancingAsset CreationWorld BuildingShot ConsiderationsDynamics and SimulationHow Is a Simulation Created?When Is Simulation Appropriate?Tricks and CheatsImportant ConsiderationsPlanning and PreparationSoftware Solutions: A Broad Overview of Current OptionsParticlesWhat Are Particle Systems?The Next StepThe Birth of ParticlesCreating EffectsRigid-Body DynamicsHow Rigid-Body Dynamics Are CreatedPotential ProblemsOther IssuesTricks for Getting It DoneDigital LightingLight in Reality and in Computer GraphicsCase Study of Reality Compared with Simple CG SimulationVisual Sophistication through Texture MappingPhysically Derived Shading ModelsBeneath the SurfaceGoals of Lighting in Visual EffectsWork Flow for Successful Creative Digital LightingThe Technologies of Lights in Computer GraphicsDirect Lighting: Source to Surface to CameraReflectionsPhotographed ReflectionsShadowsImage-Based LightingRendering OcclusionAmbient OcclusionReflection OcclusionCreating Light Sources from Environment MapsPhysically Based RenderingPhysically Plausible RenderingVolumetric Lighting EffectsShader BasicsWhat Are Shaders?Shading ModelsBump and DisplacementMap-Based ShadersProcedural ShadersShader DesignAntialiasing Considerations3D CompositingColor RepresentationBit Depth and Dynamic RangeMattesCompositing CG2.5D CompositingCrowd Generation and Simulation TechniquesLive-Action ReplicationSpritesComputer-Generated CrowdsModeling for ReplicationVariationMesh DensityAnimation Cycles for ReplicationMotion CaptureKeyframe AnimationDynamic Motion SynthesisBehaviors and Crowd ControlCG Prosthetics and Actor EnhancementsOn-Set Tracking and Capture ConsiderationsEye Enhancements3D Techniques2D Techniques2.5D TechniquesSilhouette ChangesRe-Projection3D Products, Systems, and SoftwareDigital Element Creation Process3D Graphics Software3D TrackingSpecial EffectsRenderingTexturing
Films versus GamesBasic DifferencesMost Important AspectNarrative StorytellingDifferences in LimitationsCost of Iterations and Changes during ProductionCategory TypesFormat TypesTransmedia Production Design TechniquesGames and PlatformsGame TypesGame PlatformsWhat Are Game Engines and How Do They Function?Working with a Game EngineWhat Are the Production Steps in Creating a Game?Marketing to an AudienceVisualsPhases of DevelopmentGame Cinematic SequencesNoninteractive ScenesGame Engine-Rendered NIS ScenesThe Design and Production Process
What is an Animation Project?Full Animation versus Visual EffectsDifference Between Visual Effects and AnimationProduction PipelinesProductionA Survey and History of Animation TechniquesTraditional AnimationStop-MotionComputer Graphic TechnologyConsiderations for a Full CG-Animated Feature PipelineCG Feature Animation PipelineManaging an Animated FilmFilm Management and Personal StyleBuilding Brain TrustsBuilding the Core Creative TeamWriting and Visual DevelopmentWorking with a StudioFacilities and EnvironmentManaging the EventThe Production Process: An Animator’s PerspectiveWorking on CG-Animated Content in Live-Action FeaturesPlanning the ProcessProductionCharacter and Environment Interaction
Virtual Studio TechnologyAnalysis of a Production WorkflowFrom Workflow to PipelineService Bureau versus In-House RequirementsDesign of a Production WorkflowFrom Analysis to DesignDeploying a Production WorkflowFrom Design to ImplementationInfrastructureTracking AssetsWhat Is Task and Asset Tracking?Commercial Task and Asset Tracking SystemsBuilding Task and Asset Tracking SystemsScene Assembly3D Scene Assembly2D Scene Assembly (Compositing)Working across Multiple FacilitiesImagesModelsTexturingAnimationCompositingR&D