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Microcontrollers: Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design, 2nd Edition

Name: Microcontrollers: Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design, 2nd Edition
Author: Raj Kamal
ISBN: 9788131759905

by Raj Kamal

July 2011

Intermediate to advanced

888 pages

27h 36m

English

Pearson India

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Cover
Title page
Contents
Dedication
Preface to the second edition
Preface to the first edition
Chapter 1. Types, Selection and Applications of Microcontrollers
1.1 Microcontrollers1.1.1 Numbering and Coding Systems1.1.2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)1.1.3 Microprocessor1.1.4 Microcomputer1.1.5 Computer System1.1.6 Microcontroller1.1.7 Embedded Processors1.2 Types of Microcontrollers1.2.1 The 8, 16 and 32-Bit Microcontrollers1.2.2 Embedded and External Memory Microcontrollers1.2.3 CISC and RISC Architecture Microcontrollers1.2.4 Harvard and Princeton Memory Architecture Microcontrollers1.3 Examples of the Popular Microcontrollers1.3.1 8051, Extended 8051XA and 8051MXFamilies1.3.2 MC68HC11/68HC12 Families1.3.3 8051 Based MCU of Atmel C51 Family1.3.4 Turbo μPSD1.3.5 High-density Flash 8051 Based Turbo fiPSD 3300 Family1.3.6 PIC1.3.7 ARM1.4 Selection of a Microcontroller1.4.1 Checklist of the Needed Features and Factors Taken into Consideration1.4.2 Selection of Processor and Processor Family1.4.3 Selection of On-Chip Resources-Base1.4.4 Selection of Software Building Blocks1.4.5 Selection of Development Tool-Base1.5 Applications (Examples)1.5.1 Automatic Process Control1.5.2 Instrumentation ApplicationsSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice Questions
Chapter 2. Overview of Architecture and Microcontroller Resources
2.1 Architecture of a Microcontroller2.1.1 Functional Overview of8048 and 8049 Microcontroller Architecture2.1.2 Basic Processing Unit in the 8048 Microcomputer2.2 Family Members of 8051 and 68HC11/12 Families2.3 Microcontroller On-Chip Resources2.3.1 Basic Processing Unit, Internal Buses and Interrupt Handling2.3.2 Program and Data Memory2.3.3 Parallel Ports2.3.4 On-chip Registers2.3.5 Special Function Registers2.3.6 UART2.3.7 Synchronous Serial Communication2.3.8 Timers/Counters2.3.9 PWM2.3.10 On-chip A/D Converters (ADC)2.3.11 Watchdog Timer (WDT)2.3.12 Bit-wise Manipulation Capability2.3.13 Power-Down Mode2.3.14 Real-Time Clock2.3.15 Reset Circuit2.3.16 Oscillator Circuit2.4 Resources in Advanced and Next-Generation MicrocontrollersSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice Questions
Chapter 3. Intel 8051/8031 Family Architecture
3.1 8051 Microcontroller Architecture3.1.1 Architecture3.1.2 Special Function Registers3.1.3 PSW Register Bits And Flags3.1.4 The 8052/8032 Family3.1.5 ATMEL 89C513.2 Microcontroller 8051 Pins3.3 8051 PORTS3.4 Internal and External Memory3.5 Counters and Timers3.5.1 Programmable Timers in the Intel 8051 Family3.5.2 8052 Additional Timer T23.5.3 Watchdog Timer3.6 Serial Communication in 80513.6.1 Mode 0 in Serial Communication3.6.2 UART Modes 1,2 and 3 for Serial Asynchronous Communication3.6.3 Multiprocessor UART Mode Communication3.6.4 Serial Buffer3.6.5 Interconnections RS2323.7 Interrupts3.8 Interrupts in 80513.9 External InterruptsSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 4. 8051 Family Microcontrollers Instruction Set
4.1 Programming Basics4.1.1 Machine Codes4.1.2 Program as a Set of Instructions and Routines4.2 Introduction to Machine Instrucions and Assembly4.2.1 Opcode4.2.2 Operand4.2.3 Register4.2.4 Accumulator4.2.5 Program Counter4.2.6 Stack Pointer4.2.7 Program Status Word4.2.8 Assembly and Machine, Assembly and C Instruction Formats4.3 Instruction Cycle4.4 Execution Time of an Instruction4.5 Addressing Modes4.6 Classification of the Instructions at the Instruction Set4.7 Data Transfer Instructions4.7.1 MOV Instructions4.7.2 MOVC-type Instructions4.7.3 MO VX-type Instructions4.7.4 PUSH and POP Instructions for Using the Stack Area Employing the SP4.7.5 XCH-type Instructions4.8 Data and Bit-Manipulation Instructions4.8.1 Data Byte Manipulate (Clear, Complement, Rotate and Swap) Instructions4.8.2 Boolean Variable (Bit) Manipulate and Boolean Processing Instructions4.9 Arithmetic Instructions4.10 Instructions for Logical Operations on Bytes at the Registers, Internal RAM and SFRs4.11 Program-Flow Control Instructions4.11.1 Delay-cycle (NOP) Instructions4.11.2 Long, Absolute and Short Jumps4.11.3 Conditional Short Relative Jumps4.11.4 Decrement and Conditional Jump on Zero4.11.5 Jump After Comparison4.11.6 Call to a Routine and Return from Routine4.12 Interrupt Control Flow (RETI Instruction)4.13 ASCII-Related Application Program4.14 BCD-Related Application Program4.15 Serial Port-Related Application ProgramsSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions

Chapter 5. Real Time Control: Interrupts
5.1 Interrupt Application Examples5.2 Routine, Interrupt and Interrupt Service Routine5.2.1 Call To a Routine5.3 Interrupt-Handling Structure of an MCU5.3.1 Identification of an Interrupt Source5.3.2 Resetting of Interrupt Identification Flags5.3.3 Address of Interrupt Service Routine5.4 Interrupt Latency and Interrupt Deadline5.5 Multiple Sources of the Interrupts5.6 Hardware Interrupts Related To Internal Devices:5.7 Enabling (Unmasking) or Disabling of the Sources5.8 Polling to Determine the Interrupt Sources and Assignment of the Priorities Among Them5.8.1 Advantage of Finding Pending Higher Priority Interrupt Sources at the End of Each Instruction 2055.8.2 Advantage of Finding by Interrupt Hardware for Pending Higher Priority Interrupt Sources at the End of an ISR5.8.3 Default MCU-assigned Priorities5.8.4 User-assigned Priorities5.9 Interrupt Structure in Intel 80515.9.1 The 8051 Family MCU Sources of Interrupt5.9.2 The 8051 Family MCU Interrupt Source Groups and Default Priorities for Vectored Priority Interrupts5.9.3 Unmasking and Masking of an Interrupt Source5.9.4 Default Priority Assignments for Service5.9.5 User Priority Assignments for Service5.9.6 Vector Address for the Interrupt Service Routine5.9.7 Servicing of Interrupts in 80515.10 Programming Approach for Interrupt-Related Programs5.11 Programming Examples in Assembly and CSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 6. Real-Time Control: Timers 2
6.1 Programmable Timers in the MCUs6.1.1 Programming Features in 8051/80526.1.2 Programming for Finding the Time Interval Between Two Events6.1.3 Timer Overflow in MCUs6.1.4 Precession Effects in the Timers6.1.5 Effects on Interrupt Latencies6.1.6 Timer Features in 68HC11/12 and Other MCUs for Greater Precession in Timings6.2 Free-Running Counter and Real-Time Control6.2.1 Overflows of Free-Running Counter6.2.2 Using an Output-Compare Register Along with a Timer Running as a Free-Running Counter6.2.3 Using an Input-Capture Register on an External Input Capturing of Counts at a Timer Running as a Free-Running Counter6.2.4 Programming for a Delay Using Out-Compare after an External Input-Capture6.3 Real-Time Clock Interrupts6.4 Software Timers6.5 Interrupt Interval and Density Constraints6.5.1 Interrupt Service Latency6.5.2 Examples of Interrupt Service Latency Calculation6.5.3 Interrupt Service Intervals6.5.4 Fraction of Time Spent by the CPU in the RTC Interrupt-Service6.5.5 Interrupt Density6.5.6 Interrupt Constraints6.5.7 Advantage of Combined Instructions for Reducing Interrupt DensitySummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 7. System Design: Peripherals and Interfacing
7.1 Serial UART and USART Communication Interfaces7.1.1 Serial Interface in 80517.1.2 Serial UART Chip 82507.1.3 Serial USART Chip 82517.1.4 Programming 82517.1.5 Interfacing to Processor and DCE7.2 Parallel IO Ports Interface 82557.2.1 Programming 82557.2.2 Interfacing 8255 to Processor7.3 DMA Controller 82577.3.1 Methods for IO Transactions7.3.2 Programming 825 77.3.3 Interfacing to 8086, 8051, 8096 and 68HC11/127.4 Programmable Interrupt Controller 82597.4.1 Interfacing 8259 to Processors7.5 ADC Circuit Interfacing7.6 DAC Circuit Interfacing7.7 Inter-Integrated Circuits Interfacing (I2C Bus Standard)SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 8. Systems Design: Digital and Analog Interfacing Methods
8.1 Interfacing of the Key (Switch), Keypad and Keyboard8.1.1 A Single Key (switch) and Its Interface8.1.2 Bounces in a Key (switch)8.1.3 Removing Bounce Effects on Input State from Key Using Hardware8.1.4 Array (Row) of Keys and Its Interface8.1.5 Keypad (Matrix of Keys) and Its Interfacing8.1.6 Keyboard and Its Interfacing8.1.7 Keyboard Controller8.2 Debouncing Program Examples for Key/Switches8.3 LED and Array of LEDS8.3.1 LED8.3.2 Array of LEDs or Annunciators8.3.3 Array of LEDs in a 7-Segment Hex-Digit8.3.4 Four-digit Display8.4 Alphanumeric Devices—Display Systems and Their Interfaces8.4.1 Alphanumeric Display by Sixteen-segment Display Systems8.4.2 Dot-matrix Display Systems for Multilingual, Multi-fonts and Graphic Displays8.5 LCD and LCD Controller8.5.1 LCD8.5.2 LCD Controller Circuit8.5.3 LCD Controller8.5.4 Interfacing with LCD Controller8.5.5 Programming Aspects of Hitachi 44780, Optrex DMC 16xx, DMC 16xxx, DMC 20xxx and DMC 24xxx Series Compatible LCD Controller8.6 Touch Screen and Touch -Screen Controller8.6.1 Touch Screen8.6.2 Touch-screen Controller8.6.3 Touch-screen Software Driver8.6.4 Software Functions Library to Enable Developing of the Applications8.6.5 Multi-touch and Multi-touch Controller8.6.6 Virtual Keypad8.7 Keyboard-Cum-Display Controller (8279)8.7.1 Keyboard-cum-Display Controller 82798.7.2 Interfacing of82798.7.3 Programming Aspects of82798.8 Interface with Printer8.8.1 Parallel Centronics Interface — A Printer Interface8.8.2 Serial RS232C Interface for a Print Controller in a Printer8.9 Programmable Interface for Instruments using IEEE488 (GPIB) Bus8.10 Interfacing of 8051 MCU with External Memory8.11 Interfacing with Flash Memory8.11.1 Programming the Flash Memory Chip8.12 Interfacing with MCU IO Port using Optoisolator8.13 Interfacing with Inductive Circuit8.14 Interface for a Loudspeaker8.15 Interfacing the Keypad and Speaker in a Music Playing system8.16 Interface for Stepper Motor(s) in a Robot or Printer or Industrial Drive8.17 Analog Inputs Interface with the MCU8.17.1 Interfacing Thermocouple8.17.2 Interfacing Load Cell— Electronic Weighing Machine8.17.3 Interfacing - Precision Weighing Machine8.18 Analog Output Generating Interface with MCU8.19 Using PWM for DC Motor Control8.20 Servomotor Control8.21 Interfacing to High Power Devices8.21.1 Interfacing for the Input and Output Modules8.21.2 Interfacing with AC and DC High Power Motors8.21.3 Interfacing with the Heater (Furnace)8.21.4 Interfacings Power Devices Using Advanced Microcontrollers8.22 Optical Motor Shaft Encoder8.22.1 Incremental Rotation Encoder8.22.2 Rotatory Absolute Angle Encoder8.22.3 MCU-based Scale for Measuring Linear Position8.23 Industrial Control Interface8.23.1 Automatic Control Applications8.24 Industrial Process Control System8.25 Measurement Applications and Prototype MCU-based Measuring Instruments8.26 Robotics and Embedded Control8.27 Digital Signal Processing and Digital Filters8.27.1 Digital Signal Processing (DSP)8.27.2 Digital FiltersSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 9. Programming in Assembly
9.1 Programming Basics for Assembly Language Programming9.1.1 Benefits of Assembly Language Program (ALP)9.1.2 Assembler9.1.3 Types of Assemblers9.1.4 Using an Assembler9.1.5 Assembly Language Program9.1.6 Program Steps for Basic Instructions9.1.7 Default Settings for the Ports, Timer and Interrupts on Reset in 80519.1.8 Programming Approach for the Foreground (Main) Program9.1.9 Program Approach for Programming ISR Instructions9.1.10 Default Settings for the A, B, PSW, DPTR and SP on Reset in 80519.2 Programming Examples for Ports9.2.1 Programming All 8-bits of a Port Simultaneously9.2.2 Programming Individual Port Bits9.3 Programming Examples for Timers9.3.1 Programming the Mode 0, 1, 2 and 3 of the Timer9.3.2 Programming a Delay by Using Loop Instructions9.4 Program for Blinking of LEDs9.5 Program for Real-Time Clock Interrupts9.6 Program for Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Outputs9.7 Program for LED Brightness Control Using Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Output9.8 Program for a DC Motor Speed and Direction Control Using PWM9.9 Programming Examples for Serial Port9.9.1 Serial Synchronous (USRT) Communication Mode 09.9.2 Serial Asynchronous (UART) Communication Mode 19.9.3 Serial Asynchronous (UART) Communication Mode 29.9.4 Serial Asynchronous (UART) Communication Mode 39.10 Programming Examples for INT0 and INT1 Interrupts9.11 Programming Examples for Read and Write at External Data MemorySummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 10. Programming in C
10.1 Programming in C10.1.1 Use of High-level Language Like ‘C’10.1.2 ANSI C10.2 Memory Constitution, Constants, Variables and Data Types In 805110.2.1 Memory Constitution in 805110.2.2 Constant10.2.3 Variable10.2.4 Data Types10.2.5 Static, Extern, Register and Auto Storage Classes10.2.6 Memory Models in 805110.2.7 Stack10.3 Arrays, Structures and Unions10.3.1 Arrays10.3.2 Struct10.3.3 Union10.4 Pointers10.5 Loops and Decisions—Control Structure Constructs10.5.1 Loops10.5.2 Decision Blocks10.6 Functions and Library Functions10.6.1 Function10.6.2 Passing the Parameter10.6.3 Library Functions10.7 In-line Assembly10.8 Modules and Programs10.9 Program Build Process and Development Tools10.10 C Compilers—GNU, SDCC and Keil10.10.1 GNU Tools10.10.2 SDCC Compiler10.10.3 Keil C Compiler Cx5110.11 Comments, Signs and Names in C Programs10.12 Programming Examples for Ports10.12.1 Using All 8-bits of Port Simultaneously10.12.2 Using Individuall Port Bit10.13 Programming Examples for Timers10.14 Programming Examples for Serial Port10.15 Programming Examples for Interrupts10.16 Programming Examples for External Data10.17 Programming Examples for Real-Time ClockSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 11. Real-time Operating System for System Design
11.1 Real-Time Operating System11.1.1 Multi-tasking System11.1.2 Tasks in a Multi-tasking System and Real-time Operating System (RTOS)11.1.3 Inter-Process Communication (Inter-Task Message) Functions11.1.4 Real-time Operating System11.1.5 Task Characteristics in a Multi-tasking System11.1.6 Semaphores and Mailboxes11.2 RTOS of Keil (RTX51)11.2.1 RTX51 Functions11.2.2 Using RTOS Functions for Preemptive Scheduling in RTX5111.2.3 RTX51 Versions11.2.4 C Functions in RTX51 Tiny11.2.5 C Functions in RTX51 Full11.3 Use of RTOS in System Design11.3.1 Simple Program Examples for Use of RTX51 in Design11.3.2 Case Study of Traffic Light and Use of RTOS in Design11.3.3 RTOS Functions for Design of Baby Weighing Machine11.3.4 Case Study of Toffee Vending Machine and Use of RTOS in DesignSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 12. Development Tools for Microcontroller Applications
12.1 Development Phases of a Microcontroller Based System12.2 Software Development Cycle and Applications12.3 Software Development Tools12.3.1 Integrated Development Environment (IDE)12.3.2 Open Source IDE and Tools12.3.3 RTOS12.3.4 Compiler12.3.5 Macro Assembler and Dissembler12.3.6 Library and Library Manager12.3.7 Linker/Locator and Hex File Generation12.3.8 Debugger12.3.9 Simulator12.4 Example of an IDE—μVision and Tools from KEIL12.4.1 IDE μVision212.4.2 C51 Compiler12.4.3 A51 Assembler12.4.4 LIB51 Library Manager12.4.5 BL51 Linker/Locator12.4.6 OC51 and OH51 Banked Object File Converter and Object to Hex Converter12.5 Emulator and in-Circuit Emulator (ICE)12.5.1 In-circuit Emulator (ICE)12.5.2 Joint Test Action Group (JTAG)12.5.3 Logic Analyser Circuit12.6 Target Board12.7 Device ProgrammerSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 13. PIC Family Microcontrollers
13.1 PIC Family13.1.1 MCU Families13.2 Hardware of PIC 16F87713.2.1 Overview of the Internal Hardware in PIC MCU13.2.2 Architecture of PIC Microcontroller13.2.3 Features of the CPU of PIC 16F87713.3 Memory and Memory Map in Microchip PIC Family MCU System13.3.1 On-Chip SFRs/GPRs/Internal RAM, Program Memory and Data EEPROM13.3.2 On-Chip Data Memory RAM13.3.3 Program Memory Map13.3.4 SFR Addresses in Data Memory13.4 IO Ports13.4.1 Serial Ports— MSSP and USART13.5 Timers and CCP Devices13.5.1 Timers 0, 1 and 213.5.2 Compare Outputs and Interrupts Using CCP1 and CCP213.5.3 Software Timer Interrupts Using CCP1 and CCP213.5.4 Input Captures Using CCP1 and CCP213.5.5 Pulse Width Modulated Output13.6 ADC13.7 Interrupts13.7.1 Maskable Sources of Interrupts13.7.2 Servicing of Interrupts13.8 Instructions and Instruction Set13.8.1 Instruction Formats13.8.2 Addressing Modes13.8.3 PIC 16F877Instruction Set13.8.4 PIC16F877Instructions13.9 Development Tools13.9.1 MPLAB IDESummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 14. 16-BIT Microcontrollers: 8096/80196 Family
14.1 Hardware14.1.1 Overview of the 80196 CPU and Internal Address and Data Buses14.1.2 Architecture of 8019614.2 Memory Map in Intel 80196 Family MCU System14.2.1 On-Chip RAM14.2.2 On-Chip ROM/EPROM14.2.3 External Program/Data Memory (PROM/RAM) Space14.3 IO Ports14.4 Timers14.5 High-Speed Outputs14.5.1 HSOs14.5.2 Software Timers14.5.3 Start ofADC Using T1 or T214.6 High-Speed Inputs and Input Captures14.7 Pulse Width Modulated Output14.8 Interrupts14.8.1 Non-maskable and Maskable Sources of Interrupts14.8.2 Servicing of Interrupts14.9 Instructions and Instruction SetSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 15. 32-Bit ARM7, ARM9 AND ARM MCUs: Architecture, Programming and Development Tools
15.1 Introduction To 16/32 BIT Processors15.2 ARM Architecture15.3 ARM715.4 ARM915.5 ARM-based MCUs15.6 ARM Cortex-M315.7 ARM Instruction Set15.7.1 32/16-bit ARM Instruction Set15.7.2 Data Transfer, Bit Clearing and Masking Instructions15.7.3 Arithmetic Operation Instructions15.7.4 Logic Operation Instructions15.7.5 Data and Bit Manipulations During Move, Arithmetic, Data Swap, Branch and Exchange Instructions15.7.6 Program Flow Control Instructions15.7.7 SWI Interrupt Control Instruction15.7.8 Formats of 32-bit Instruction15.8 Thumb® Instruction-Set Extension15.8.1 Thumb Instruction Set15.8.2 Thumb Instruction Format15.8.3 ARM/Thumb Inter-working15.8.4 Thumb 215.9 Exception Handling in ARM15.10 Development Tools15.11 Porting Developed Codes in ARM Based System15.12 Porting Linux in ARM15.13 Assembly and C Programming (GNU Tools)SummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Chapter 16. Motorola MC68HC11/12 Family
16.1 Architecture16.1.1 CPU Registers and Internal Buses16.1.2 Ports16.1.3 Internal Devices16.1.4 Memory Addresses16.1.5 On-Chip Registers (RAM) at 256-byte Address Space 256 Bytes16.1.6 On-Chip Program and EEPROM16.1.7 64 Byte Space for Internal-device Function Registers16.1.8 Addressable Register Space of 192 B Internal RAM16.1.9 Internal RAM16.1.10 Memory Map16.2 Addressing Modes and Instructions16.2.1 Addressing Modes in the Instruction Set16.2.2 Instructions16.3 Interfacing Methods16.3.1 General-purpose Parallel Port IO Interface16.3.2 Memory Interfacing, IO Additional Ports andIO Interfacing16.3.3 Serial IO Devices16.3.4 RS232 and RS48516.4 Interrupts16.4.1 Non-maskable, Maskable Sources of Interrupts and Reset16.4.2 Servicing of Interrupts16.5 Programmable Timer16.5.1 Timing Signal Generation—TCNT Overflow and Real Time Clock Interrupts16.5.2 Input Capture16.5.3 Timing Measurements of External Event16.5.4 Out Compare16.5.5 P WM Outputs16.5.6 Frequency Measurement16.5.7 Pulse Accumulator Counter16.6 Applications of Analog InterfacingSummaryKey TermsReview QuestionsPractice ExercisesMultiple Choice QuestionsFill in the Blanks Type Questions
Appendices
References
Notes
Solutions to Multiple Choice Questions
Solutions to Fill in the blanks Questions
Acknowledgements
Copyright

Content preview from Microcontrollers: Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design, 2nd Edition

4 8051 Family Microcontrollers Instruction Set

Chapter Outline

Learn programming basics and introduction to machine and assembly instructions
Different types of instructions and addressing modes in the instructions
Learn the data transfer, byte arithmetic and logic operation instructions of 8051
Learn the data and bit manipulating Boolean processing, program control, IO and interrupt control instructions of 8051
Write simple assembly language programs using 8051 instruction set
Write simple programs for data transfer, delay and use of loops to understand the instructions

4.1 PROGRAMMING BASICS

A program means a set of instructions, which executes in an order. The order of execution of instructions is defined in the program. Many instructions ...

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Microcontrollers: Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design, 2nd Edition

by Raj Kamal

4