4.1 Introduction4.2 Causal Analysis4.2.1 Selecting Items for Causal Analysis4.2.2 Gathering and Organizing the Information4.2.3 Identifying Root Causes4.2.4 Drawing Conclusions4.2.5 Causal Analysis with System Diagrams4.2.6 Causal Analysis during Formal Reviews4.2.7 Causal Analysis Lessons Learned4.3 GQM Approach4.3.1 Introduction4.3.2 Paradigms4.3.3 GQM Process4.3.4 Supporting Tools and Techniques4.3.5 Bottom-Up Improvement4.4 Analysis Using Measures, Metrics, and Indicators4.4.1 Test Effectiveness Metrics4.4.2 Test Efficiency / Cost Metrics4.4.3 Lead-Time Metrics4.4.4 Predictability Metrics4.4.5 Product Quality Metrics4.4.6 Test Maturity Metrics4.5 Exercises