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Building Expertise: Cognitive Methods for Training and Performance Improvement

Name: Building Expertise: Cognitive Methods for Training and Performance Improvement
Author: Ruth Colvin Clark
ISBN: 9780787988449

by Ruth Colvin Clark

September 2008

Intermediate to advanced

512 pages

9h 12m

English

Pfeiffer

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Copyright
Introduction to the Third Edition: GETTING THE MOST FROM THIS RESOURCE
PurposeAudiencePackage ComponentsGlossary
One. Foundations of Building Expertise
1. Expertise in the Global Economy
1.1. The Value of Expertise1.2. The Challenge of Global Expertise1.3. What Is an Expert?1.4. Seven Lessons Learned About Experts1.4.1. 1. Expertise Requires Extensive Practice1.4.2. 2. Expertise Is Domain Specific1.4.3. 3. Expertise Requires Deliberate Practice1.4.4. 4. Experts See with Different Eyes1.4.5. 5. Experts Can Get Stuck1.4.6. 6. Expertise Grows from Two Intelligences1.4.7. 7. Challenging Problems Require Diverse Expertise1.5. Four Ingredients of Instruction1.5.1. Suggested Readings
2. Four Ingredients of Instruction
2.1. Which Media Are Best for Learning?2.2. Four Components of Learning2.2.1. What Are Communication Modes?2.2.2. What Are Instructional Methods?2.2.3. Instructional Architectures: The DNA of Learning2.3. Three Views of Learning2.3.1. The Absorption View2.3.2. The Behavioral View2.3.3. The Constructive View2.4. Four Instructional Architectures2.4.1. Receptive Architectures2.4.2. Directive Architectures2.4.3. Guided Discovery Architectures2.4.4. Exploratory Architectures2.4.5. Architectural Blends2.5. No Yellow Brick Road2.5.1. Suggested Readings
3. No Yellow Brick Road
3.1. Instructional Components and Learning: No Yellow Brick Road3.2. Graphics and Learning: A Journey Down the Yellow Brick Road3.2.1. Learning Benefits of Adding a Visual to Text3.2.2. Who Benefits from Visuals?3.2.3. What Kinds of Visuals Improve Learning?3.3. Factors That Influence Learning3.3.1. Learner Differences: Prior Knowledge3.3.2. Routine vs. Non-Routine Tasks: Near and Far Transfer3.3.3. Matching Architectures to Learners and Tasks3.4. Toward an Evidence-Based Training Profession3.5. About the Numbers3.5.1. Statistical Significance3.5.2. Effect Sizes and Practical Significance3.5.3. Meta-Analysis: Drawing Conclusions from Multiple Experiments3.6. The Psychology of Building Expertise3.6.1. Suggested Readings
4. The Psychology of Building Expertise
4.1. Two Memories for Learning4.1.1. Working Memory: A Powerful Bottleneck4.1.2. Long-Term Memory: A Large Capacity Repository4.1.3. Working Memory and Long-Term Memory Work Together4.2. The Transformation of Content into Knowledge and Skills4.2.1. Supporting Attention4.2.2. Activation of Prior Knowledge4.2.3. Management of Load in Working Memory4.2.4. Rehearsal in Working Memory Leading to Encoding into Long-Term Memory4.2.5. Retrieval from Long-Term Memory4.2.6. How Long-Term Memory Influences Learning4.2.7. Metacognition and Self-Regulated Learners4.2.8. Motivation and Learning4.3. Eight Principles for Instruction4.3.1. 1. Optimize Motivational Beliefs4.3.2. 2. Activate Prior Knowledge Early in Instruction4.3.3. 3. Direct Attention to Important Elements in the Lesson4.3.4. 4. Manage Irrelevant Cognitive Load4.3.5. 5. Promote Encoding into Long-Term Memory4.3.6. 6. Use Job-Context to Promote Retrieval and Transfer of Near-Transfer Skills4.3.7. 7. Build Robust Mental Models to Support Far-Transfer Learning4.3.8. 8. Adapt Instruction to Your Learners' Metacognitive Skills and Your Instructional Goals4.4. How Working Memory Works4.4.1. Suggested Readings
Two. Basic Learning Events Proven to Build Expertise
5. How Working Memory Works
5.1. Working Memory: The Center of Learning5.2. New Content Has a Short Shelf Life in Working Memory5.3. Chess, Chunking, and Capacity Limits of Working Memory5.3.1. Recalling a Scrambled Chess Board5.3.2. Working Memory Capacity Is Limited5.3.3. Seven Plus or Minus Two Revised5.3.4. Are Experts Smarter?5.3.5. Experts Often Overload Learners5.4. What Happens When Working Memory is Overloaded?5.5. Automaticity: A Working Memory Bypass5.5.1. Automaticity and Expertise5.6. Visual and Auditory Components in Working Memory5.6.1. Multiple Components of Working Memory5.7. Why Is Working Memory So Limited?5.8. Working Memory and Performance5.9. Managing Cognitive Load5.9.1. Recommended Readings
6. Managing Cognitive Load
6.1. The Cognitive Load Management Principle6.1.1. What Is Cognitive Load?6.1.2. Factors That Affect Cognitive Load6.1.3. Productive vs. Irrelevant Cognitive Load6.2. Methods That Bypass Working Memory6.2.1. External Memory Support6.2.2. Internal Memory Support: Building Automaticity6.3. Methods That Minimize Content6.3.1. Write Concisely6.3.2. Omit Unnecessary Technical Details6.3.3. Omit Unnecessary Audio, Including Music6.3.4. Omit Tangential Stories and Visuals6.3.5. Avoid Redundant Modes6.3.6. Minimize Animations6.4. Methods to Impose Content Gradually6.4.1. Teach Relevant Concepts First6.4.2. Segment Lessons6.4.3. Let Learners Pace Themselves6.5. Methods to Minimize Unproductive Mental Work6.5.1. Replace Some Practice with Worked Examples6.5.2. Represent Spatial Content with Visuals6.6. Methods to Maximize Working Memory Capacity6.6.1. Describe Visuals with Audio Narration6.7. Managing Attention6.7.1. Recommended Resources

7. Managing Attention
7.1. The High Price of Attention Failure7.2. The Attention Principle7.2.1. What Is Attention?7.2.2. Strengthen and Focus the Beam: A Flashlight Analogy7.3. Instructional Methods to Support Attention7.3.1. Attention During Learning7.4. Optimizing Attentional Capacity in the Classroom7.4.1. Manage the Physical Environment7.4.2. Manage Fatigue7.4.3. Promote Accountability and Engagement7.4.4. Competency-Based Instructional Models7.4.5. Questions7.4.6. Instructor Contact7.4.7. Pacing7.5. Methods to Focus Attention7.5.1. Research on Selective Attention7.6. Methods to Support Selective Attention7.6.1. Incorporate Cues in Visuals and Text7.6.2. Use Signaling Techniques in the Classroom7.6.3. Focus Goals to Direct Attention7.6.4. Insert Questions During Learning Events7.6.5. Include Learning Objectives with Achievement Criteria7.7. What Is Divided Attention?7.7.1. Research on Divided Attention7.8. Methods to Minimize Divided Attention7.8.1. Integrate Related Visuals and Words on Pages and Screens7.8.2. Integrate Instruction in the Same Medium7.9. Leveraging Prior Knowledge7.9.1. Recommended Readings
8. Leveraging Prior Knowledge
8.1. The Prior Knowledge Principle8.2. Methods to Activate Prior Knowledge8.2.1. Problem-Based Learning8.2.2. Asking and Answering Pre-Questions8.2.3. Comparative Advance Organizers8.2.4. What Are the Features of an Effective Advance Organizer?8.3. Methods to Compensate for Limited Prior Knowledge8.3.1. Pre-Lesson Case Analysis8.3.2. When to Use Pre-Lesson Case Assignments8.3.3. Expository Advance Organizers8.4. Avoid Activating Inappropriate Prior Knowledge8.4.1. The Psychological Effects of Seductive Details8.5. When to Use Prior Knowledge Methods8.6. Helping Learners Build Mental Models: Implicit Methods8.6.1. Recommended Readings
9. Helping Learners Build Mental Models: Implicit Methods
9.1. The Building Mental Models Principle9.1.1. What Are Mental Models?9.1.2. How Learners Construct Mental Models9.2. Explicit and Implicit Encoding Methods9.3. Implicit Methods to Build Mental Models9.4. Use Graphics to Build Mental Models9.4.1. What Kinds of Graphics Are Most Effective?9.4.2. How Graphics Build Mental Models9.5. Personalize Your Learning Environment9.5.1. Use Conversational Language to Personalize Learning9.5.2. Evidence for Conversational Language9.5.3. Use On-Screen Agents in Multimedia to Personalize Learning9.5.4. Features of Agents That Matter9.6. Include Deep-Level Learning Agent Dialogs9.6.1. Can Interactive Environments Be Replaced with Dialogs?9.7. Provide Examples and Encourage Their Processing9.7.1. Maximizing Learning from Examples9.8. Provide Effective Analogies9.8.1. What Makes Analogies Effective?9.9. Include Process Content in Your Instruction9.10. Offer Cognitive Support for Novice Learners9.10.1. Evidence That Graphics Benefit Novices9.10.2. The Expertise Reversal Effect9.11. Helping Leaners Build Mental Models: Explicit Methods9.11.1. Recommended Readings
10. Helping Learners Build Mental Models: Explicit Methods
10.1. Is Active Learning Better? A Tale of Six Lessons10.1.1. Case 1: Lecture vs. Problem-Based Discussions10.1.2. Case 2: Text Reading vs. Computer Simulation10.1.3. Case 3: Author-Provided vs. Learner-Generated Graphic Organizers10.1.4. Practice vs. Deliberate Practice10.2. Building Mental Models Principle10.2.1. What Are Mental Models?10.3. Explicit vs. Implicit Methods for Building Mental Models10.4. Maintenance vs. Elaborative Rehearsal10.4.1. Maintenance Rehearsal10.4.2. Elaborative Rehearsal10.5. Incorporate Frequent Elaborative Practice Exercises10.5.1. Design and Assign Elaborative Practice Exercises10.5.2. Assign Argumentation10.6. The Law of Diminishing Returns10.6.1. Consider Cost-Benefit When Planning Practice Exercises10.7. Distribute Practice Assignments10.8. Provide Explanatory Feedback10.8.1. Evidence for Explanatory Feedback10.8.2. Intrinsic vs. Instructional Feedback10.9. Use Effective Questioning Techniques in the Classroom10.10. Promote Psychological Engagement with Graphics10.11. Promote Explicit Self-Explanations of Content10.11.1. Self-Explanations of Chess Move Examples10.11.2. Self-Explanations of Correct Responses in Guided Discovery Learning10.11.3. Self-Explanations of Worked-Out Steps in Math Examples10.12. Incorporate Collaborative Learning Opportunities10.12.1. Conditions for Collaborative Learning Success10.12.2. Structured Controversy10.12.3. The Collaborative Learning Principle10.13. Minimize Note-Taking in Instructor-Led Presentations10.14. Who Benefits from Practice?10.15. Learning vs. Performance: The Psychology of Transfer10.15.1. Recommended Readings
11. Learning vs. Performance: The Psychology of Transfer
11.1. Transfer: The Bridge from Training to Performance11.2. Four Tales of Transfer Failure11.2.1. Case 1: Poor Organizational Support11.2.2. Case 2: Failure of Creativity Training11.2.3. Case 3: Training How But Not Why11.2.4. Case 4. Transfer and Context11.3. Causes of Transfer Failure11.3.1. A Culture of Transfer11.3.2. Transfer of General Skills to Specific Situations11.3.3. Learning How It Works11.3.4. Learning Is Context Bound11.4. The Transfer Challenge11.5. Specific Versus General Theories of Transfer11.5.1. Brain Builders: A General Transfer Theory11.5.2. Context Is King: A Specific Transfer Theory11.5.3. Transfer of Mental Models11.6. The Transfer Continuum11.6.1. Zero Transfer11.6.2. Near Transfer11.6.3. Moderate Transfer11.6.4. Far Transfer11.7. Surface Versus Deep Structure and Transfer11.8. Transfer and Intelligence11.9. Teaching for Transfer11.9.1. Recommended Readings
12. Teaching for Transfer
12.1. Transfer: It's All About Context12.2. Teaching for Near-Transfer Performance12.2.1. Mimic Job Context for Procedural Training12.2.2. Use Operational Simulations12.3. Learning Aids for Near-Transfer Learning12.3.1. Training Wheels12.3.2. Hints12.3.3. Part Task Drill and Practice12.3.4. Use Audio Narration or Integrated Text for Demonstrations12.4. Teaching for Moderate Transfer12.4.1. Move from Specific to General Steps12.4.2. Teach How It Works12.5. Teaching for Far-Transfer Performance12.5.1. Use Varied Context Examples and Practice Exercises12.5.2. Engage Learners in Comparisons of Examples12.5.3. Incorporate the Why's and How's12.5.4. Use Inductive Techniques12.6. Learning Aids for Guided-Discovery Simulations12.6.1. Start with Simple Simulation Goals12.6.2. Include Explanatory Feedback12.6.3. Optimize Simulation Pacing12.6.4. Keep Simulation Interfaces Simple12.7. Problem-Centered Instruction12.7.1. Recommended Reading
Three. Promoting Adaptive Expertise and Motivation
13. Problem-Centered Instruction
13.1. The Revival of Problem-Centered Learning13.1.1. What Is Problem-Centered Design?13.2. The Benefits of Problem-Centered Design13.2.1. Problems Promote Transfer13.2.2. Learners Like Problem-Based Learning13.2.3. Problems Promote Engagement13.2.4. Problems Lead to "Teachable Moments"13.2.5. Problems Provide Vehicles for Integrated Learning13.2.6. Problems Focus on Thinking and Learning Processes13.3. Three Problem-Centered Design Models13.4. Model 1: Problem-Based Learning (PBL)13.4.1. What Have Medical Educators Learned About PBL?13.4.2. What Features Lead to PBL Success?13.5. Model 2: 4C/ID13.5.1. A Course on Preparing a Legal Plea Designed with 4C/ID13.5.2. Managing Cognitive Load in 4C/ID13.6. Model 3: Sherlock and Cognitive Apprenticeship13.7. Applying Problem-Centered Design13.7.1. Low-Complexity Designs13.7.2. High-Complexity Designs13.7.3. When to Use Complex Problem-Centered Designs13.8. Issues in Problem-Centered Instruction13.8.1. Problem Quality13.8.2. Problem-Solving Support13.8.3. Reflection on Solutions13.8.4. Use of Collaboration13.8.5. Use of Media to Present Problems13.9. Reservations About Problem-Centered Instruction13.10. Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Adaptive Expertise13.10.1. Recommended Readings
14. Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Adaptive Expertise
14.1. Cognition, Metacognition, and Adaptive Expertise14.1.1. What Is Metacognition?14.1.2. Routine Expertise vs. Adaptive Expertise14.2. Metacognition and Self-Regulation14.2.1. What Is Self-Regulation?14.3. Are Learners Self-Regulated?14.3.1. Do Learners Know What They Know?14.3.2. Do Students Select Instructional Methods That Promote Learning?14.3.3. Do Practicing Professionals Accurately Assess Their Competence?14.3.4. Can Learners Monitor Understanding as They Study?14.3.5. The Bottom Line: Don't Rely on Learner Judgment!14.4. Supporting Self-Regulation During Learning14.4.1. Assess Self-Regulated Learning Skills of Your Audience14.4.2. Build in Support Structures to Guide Selection and Completion of Learning Events14.4.3. Design Instruction to Accommodate Metacognitive Learning Skills14.5. Domain-Specific Metacognitive Skills14.6. Building Domain-Specific Metacognitive Skills14.6.1. Include Worked Examples of Metacognitive Skills14.6.2. Build Learner Awareness of Problem-Solving Strategies14.6.3. Use Guided-Discovery Architectures to Build Metacognitive Skills14.6.4. Promote Deliberate Practice by Teaching Self-Regulation Skills14.6.5. Recommended Readings
15. Motivation and Expertise
15.1. Motivation for Learning15.1.1. Motivation, Self-Regulation, and Beliefs15.2. What Is Motivation?15.3. External vs. Internal Views of Motivation15.3.1. Beyond Carrots and Sticks15.4. Beliefs and Learning Choices15.4.1. Is the Outcome Important?15.4.2. Am I Capable and in Control?15.4.3. Is It Interesting?15.4.4. Emotional and Cognitive Situational Interest15.4.5. Motivational Theories and Choices15.5. Beliefs About Learning Outcomes and Persistence15.5.1. Attribution Theory15.6. Goal Setting and Motivation15.6.1. 1. Challenging Specific Goals Lead to Better Performance and Persistence15.6.2. 2. Goals That Focus on Task Techniques Lead to Expertise15.6.3. 3. Mastery Goal Orientations Lead to Deeper Learning Strategies15.6.4. 4. Intrinsic Goals Lead to Greater Voluntary Commitment15.7. Motivating Your Learners15.7.1. Recommended Readings
16. Motivating Your Learners
16.1. Instructional Environments That Motivate16.2. Evidence for Managing Learner Beliefs16.3. Promote Self-Confidence by Structuring for Success16.3.1. Construct Tasks of Optimal Challenge16.3.2. Match Learning Architectures to Learner Background16.3.3. Incorporate Guidance and Explanatory Feedback with Frequent Practice16.3.4. Incorporate Social Models of Success16.3.5. Help Learners Assess Prerequisites16.4. Encourage Mastery (Progress) Goal Orientations16.4.1. Establish a Criterion-Referenced Learning Environment16.4.2. Encourage Attributions to Controllable Causes16.4.3. Establish Technique Goals As Well As Outcome Goals16.5. Exploit Personal and Situational Interest16.6. Techniques to Promote Cognitive Situational Interest16.6.1. Write Understandable and Coherent Lessons16.6.2. Use Language and Examples That Are Concrete and Vivid16.6.3. Engage Readers Through Personalization16.6.4. Present New Content in Familiar Terms16.7. Leverage Personal Interest16.7.1. Situational Interest Can Compensate for Lack of Personal Interest16.8. Make Values Salient16.9. Practical Applications in Building Expertise16.9.1. Recommended Readings
Four. Building Expertise in Action
17. Practical Applications in Building Expertise
17.1. Adopting Evidence-Based Practice17.1.1. Guidelines for Lesson Introductions17.1.2. Guidelines for Presenting Content17.1.3. Guidelines for Practice17.2. What Is an Excellent Lesson?17.2.1. Tailor for Prior Knowledge17.2.2. Tailor for Outcome Goals17.3. Sample 1: A Receptive Presentation17.3.1. How It Works17.3.2. Learning Tradeoffs17.4. Sample 2: A Directive e-Lesson17.4.1. How It Works17.4.2. Learning Tradeoffs17.5. Sample 3: A Guided-Discovery Classroom Workshop17.5.1. How It Works17.5.2. Learning Tradeoffs17.5.3. Problem-Based Learning Benefits17.6. Exploratory Architectures for Far-Transfer Learning17.7. A Final Word
REFERENCES
A. Glossary
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
ABOUT ISPI

Content preview from Building Expertise: Cognitive Methods for Training and Performance Improvement

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

RUTH COLVIN CLARK, Ed.D., has focused her professional efforts on bridging the gap between academic research on instructional methods and application of that research by training and performance support professionals in corporate and government organizations. Dr. Clark has developed a number of seminars and has written six books, including e-Learning and the Science of Instruction, Developing Technical Training, and Efficiency in Learning, that translate important research programs into practitioner guidelines.

A science undergraduate, she completed her doctorate in instructional psychology/educational technology in 1988 at the University of Southern California. Dr. Clark is a past president of the International Society of Performance ...

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Building Expertise: Cognitive Methods for Training and Performance Improvement

by Ruth Colvin Clark

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