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Graphics for Learning: Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing, and Evaluating Visuals in Training Materials

Name: Graphics for Learning: Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing, and Evaluating Visuals in Training Materials
ISBN: 9780787969943

by Ruth C. Clark, Chopeta Lyons

May 2004

Beginner

536 pages

10h 39m

English

Pfeiffer

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Copyright
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
FOREWORD
INTRODUCTION: GETTING THE MOST FROM THIS RESOURCE
The Lost Potential of Instructional VisualsWhat Makes Our Book Different from Other Books on Graphics?Is This Book for You?An Overview of Our BookOur CD-ROM
I. Introduction to Section One: The Foundation
1. Three Views of Instructional Visuals
1.1. The Unrealized Potential of Visuals1.2. What Is a Graphic?1.3. Which Graphics Are Best? No Yellow Brick Road1.3.1. Factor 1: Functions of Visuals1.3.1.1. Learning Depends on Graphic Functionality.1.3.1.2. Communication Functions of Visuals.1.3.1.3. Psychological Functions of Visuals.1.3.2. Factor 2: Instructional Goals and Lesson Content1.3.3. Factor 3: Visuals and Learner Differences1.4. Surface versus Functional Taxonomies of Visuals1.5. Communication Functions of Graphics1.5.1. Decorative1.5.2. Representational1.5.3. Mnemonic1.5.4. Organizational1.5.5. Relational1.5.6. Transformational1.5.7. Interpretive1.6. Graphics to Support Psychological Events of Learning1.6.1. How Learning Happens1.7. Graphics in the Instructional Landscape1.8. Our Guiding Principles1.8.1. Graphic Effectiveness Depends on Graphic Functionality1.8.2. Guidelines for Graphics Should be Based on Research Evidence1.8.3. Context Will Influence Use of Visuals1.8.4. COMING NEXT1.9. For More Information
2. A Visual Design Model for Planning Graphics Systematically
2.1. What Can Happen Without a Systematic Approach2.2. What Happens When Instructional Designers Follow a Systematic Process2.3. A Visual Design Model2.3.1. I. Define the Goal2.3.2. II. Define the Visual Context2.3.2.1. Who Are the Learners?2.3.2.2. What Is the Learning Environment?2.3.2.3. What Is the Delivery Medium?2.3.2.4. What Are Your Constraints?2.3.3. III. Design the Visual Approach2.3.3.1. Make a Preliminary Assessment of Content Graphic Requirements.2.3.3.2. Determine the Image the Package Should Project.2.3.4. IV. Identify Communication Function of Visuals to Match Content Types2.3.5. V. Apply Principles of Psychological Instructional Events to Visual Design Decisions2.3.6. COMING NEXT2.4. SUMMARY OF SECTION ONE2.4.1. Objective of the Section:2.4.1.1. What Makes an Effective Graphic for Learning?2.4.1.2. How Do I Plan for Effective Graphics for Learning?
II. Introduction to Section Two: How to Use Visuals to Support Psychological Learning Processes
3. How Graphics Influence Learning Processes
3.1. Not All Visuals Are Equal3.2. Graphics and Learning Processes3.3. A Tale of Two Memories3.3.1. Long-Term Memory Influences the Capacity of Working Memory3.3.2. Visual and Auditory Components of WM3.3.3. Use the Auditory and Visual Subcomponents to Maximize Working Memory Capacity.3.4. How Learning Happens3.4.1. Drawing Attention to New Content3.4.2. Awakening Appropriate Prior Knowledge3.4.3. Managing Cognitive Load3.4.4. Building Mental Models3.4.5. Transferring New Skills After Learning3.4.6. Optimizing Motivation3.5. How Graphics Promote Learning3.5.1. Leveraging the Benefits of Graphics: A Summary3.5.2. COMING NEXT3.6. For More Information
4. Plan Graphics That Direct Attention
4.1. Attention, Learning, and Graphics4.1.1. Focused versus Divided Attention4.2. Graphics and Focused Attention4.3. Guideline 1: Use Signals and Cues to Draw Attention to Important Content4.3.1. Research on Graphic Signals4.4. Guideline 2: Use Color and Contrast as a Visual Signal to Support Focused Attention4.5. Guideline 3: Use Color to Improve Job Performance with High Visual Search Tasks4.6. Graphics and Divided Attention4.7. Guideline 4: Place Text Close to the Visuals It Describes4.7.1. Research on Contiguity4.7.2. Applying the Contiguity Principle4.8. Guideline 5: Avoid Distracting Visuals4.8.1. Use Animation Sparingly as a Visual Signal4.8.2. Use Animation Carefully to Communicate Motion4.8.3. COMING NEXT4.9. For More Information

5. Plan Graphics That Awaken Prior Knowledge
5.1. Prior Knowledge, Learning, and Graphics5.1.1. Activating or Building Relevant Prior Knowledge5.1.2. Instructional Methods and Prior Knowledge5.2. What Are Advance Organizers?5.2.1. Comparative versus Expository Organizers5.3. Guideline 1: Use Comparative Advance Organizers When Learners Have Relevant Prior Knowledge5.4. Guideline 2: Use Expository Advance Organizers When Learners Lack Relevant Prior Knowledge5.5. Guideline 3: Avoid Seductive Details in Lesson Introductions5.5.1. What Are Seductive Visuals?5.5.2. How Seductive Details Disrupt Activation of Prior Knowledge5.5.3. COMING NEXT
6. Plan Graphics That Minimize Memory Load
6.1. What Is Cognitive Load?6.1.1. Sources of Cognitive Load6.2. Guideline 1: Use Graphics Rather Than Text to Represent Spatial Content6.2.1. Evidence for the Value of Visuals to Present Procedural Information6.3. Guideline 2: Plan Graphics That Are Consistent in Style and Low in Complexity6.4. Guideline 3: Explain Complex Graphics with Words in Audio6.4.1. Evidence for Effectiveness of Audio to Describe Visuals6.5. Guideline 4: Use Words or Graphics Alone When Information Is Self-Explanatory6.5.1. Evidence for When to Add Words to Diagrams6.6. Guideline 5: Teach the Components of a Complex Visual Display First When You Need Learners to Acquire Deeper Understanding6.6.1. Evidence for Chunking and Sequencing Graphics6.7. Graphic Benefits Depend on Graphic Functions6.7.1. COMING NEXT6.8. For More Information
7. Plan Graphics to Help Learners Build Mental Models
7.1. Mental Models, Learning, and Graphics7.1.1. What Are Mental Models?7.1.2. How Can We Measure Mental Models in Instruction?7.2. How Graphics Help Build Mental Models7.3. Guideline 1: Use Organizational Graphics to Communicate Qualitative Relationships7.3.1. Research on Graphic Organizers7.3.2. When to Use Organizers7.4. Guideline 2: Use Charts and Graphs to Communicate Quantitative Relationships7.4.1. Select Graphs Most Appropriate to the Task7.4.2. Use the Graph Format That Best Builds the Intended Mental Model7.5. Guideline 3: Use Transformational Visuals to Communicate Changes in Time or Space7.5.1. Graphic Design of Transformational Visuals: Dynamic versus Static Visuals7.5.2. Evidence That Static Visuals Teach as Well as Dynamic Visuals7.6. Guideline 4: Use Interpretive Visuals to Communicate Cause-and-Effect Relationships7.6.1. COMING NEXT7.7. For More Information
8. Plan Graphics That Support Transfer of Learning
8.1. Transfer and Work Performance8.1.1. The Cost of Transfer Failure8.1.2. Transfer and Retrieval8.2. Near versus Far Transfer Tasks8.3. Context Is King for Near Transfer Skills8.4. Guideline 1: Use Representational Visuals to Promote Transfer of Near Transfer Skills8.5. Mental Models Are King in Far Transfer Learning8.5.8.5.1. Teaching for Understanding8.7. Guideline 2: Use Visuals to Build Understanding of How It Works8.8. Guideline 3: Use Visuals to Make Abstract Ideas Concrete8.9. Guideline 4: Use Varied Context Visual Examples to Build Understanding8.10. Guideline 5: Use Visuals to Promote Inductive Learning8.10.1. Discovery versus Guided Discovery Learning8.10.2. When to Use Simulations for Inductive Instruction8.11. Guideline 6: Use Visual Mnemonics to Support Memory8.11.1. COMING NEXT8.12. Suggested Readings
9. Plan Graphics to Motivate Learning and Manage Sizzle
9.1. Edutainment and Learning9.2. Motivation and Interest9.2.1. Liking and Learning9.3. Personal versus Situational Interest9.4. Guideline 1: Build Materials High in Situational Interest for Learners with Low Personal Interest9.5. Guideline 2: Use Visuals That Make Lesson Relevance Obvious9.6. How to Draw on Situational Interest9.7. Guideline 3: Avoid Graphics That Use Emotional Interest to Motivate Learning9.8. Guideline 4: Use Techniques to Build Cognitive Situational Interest to Motivate Learning9.9. Techniques to Build Cognitive Interest9.9.1. Prepare Understandable and Coherent Lessons9.9.2. Use Concrete and Vivid Language and Visuals9.9.3. Draw on Familiar Content and Context9.9.4. COMING NEXT9.10. For More Information
10. Plan Graphics That Accommodate Learner Differences
10.1. Visual versus Verbal Learners10.1.1. Three Individual Differences10.2. Guideline 1: For Low Prior Knowledge Learners, Add Graphics That Are Congruent with Text10.3.10.3.1. Why Graphics Help Low Prior Knowledge Learners10.4. Guideline 2: For High Prior Knowledge Learners Use Only Words or Only Visuals10.5. Guideline 3: Encourage All Learners to Process Visuals Effectively10.5.1. Encouraging Visual Literacy10.6. Guideline 4: Visual/Verbal Style Preferences May Not Predict Effectiveness of Graphics10.6.1. Spatial Preferences versus Spatial Aptitude10.7. Three Types of Spatial Ability10.7.1. What Is Spatial Span?10.8. Guideline 5: Minimize Demands on Spatial Span by Displaying Visuals in a Synchronized Rather Than a Successive Manner10.8.1. Iconic versus Spatial Visualizers10.9. Guideline 6: For Spatial Tasks, Provide Visual Support to Help Low Spatial Learners Succeed10.9.1. Identifying Low Spatial Ability Learners10.10. Accommodating Individual Differences: A Summary10.10.1. COMING NEXT10.11. For More Information10.11.1. Graphics and Prior Knowledge10.11.2. Graphics and Spatial Span10.11.3. Iconic versus Spatial Visualizers10.11.4. Measures of Spatial Ability10.12. SUMMARY OF SECTION TWO10.12.1. Objective of the Section10.12.2. Summary of Guidelines10.12.2.1. Attention10.12.2.2. Prior Knowledge10.12.2.3. Memory Load10.12.2.4. Building Mental Models10.12.2.5. Transfer10.12.2.6. Motivation10.12.2.7. Individual Differences
III. Introduction to Section Three: How to Visualize Lesson Content
11. How to Visualize Procedures
11.1. What Are Procedures?11.2. Teaching Procedures11.2.1. Performance Aids for By-Passing Training11.3. How to Visualize Procedures11.4. Guideline 1: Provide Demonstrations That Combine Transformational and Representational Visuals11.5. Guideline 2: Design Transformational Visuals That Show Activity Flows from the Performers' Perspective in the Work Environment11.5.1. Show Actions in Context11.5.2. Use Transformational Visuals in Manuals that Show Action Flows11.6. Guideline 3: Manage Cognitive Load for Complex Procedures, Novice Learners, and Instructionally Paced Materials11.6.1. 1. Use Visual Cues to Direct Attention11.6.2. 2. Provide Memory Support for Use During and After Training11.6.3. 3. Use Audio to Explain Animated Demonstrations11.6.4. 4. Place Text Close to the Visuals It Describes11.6.5. 5. Use Diagrams to Illustrate Instructions That Involve Spatial Complexity11.6.6. 6. Eliminate Extraneous Detail11.7. Guideline 4: Use Visuals to Draw Attention to and Illustrate Warnings11.8. Guideline 5: For Online Practice of Computer Procedures, Support Transformational Visuals with Onscreen Contiguous Text for Directions, Feedback, and Memory Support11.8.1. Visualization of Feedback During Simulations11.8.2. Memory Support11.9. Tips for Visualizing Procedures11.9.1. Common Mistakes to Avoid When Visualizing Procedures11.9.2. COMING NEXT11.10. For More Information
12. How to Visualize Concepts
12.1. What Are Concepts?12.1.1. Concrete versus Abstract Concepts12.2. Teaching Concepts12.3. How to Visualize Concepts12.4. Guideline 1: Display Two or More Representational Graphic Examples Contiguous to Each Other and to Text Definitions12.5. Guideline 2: Create a Visual Counterexample to Help the Learner Build Accurate Mental Models12.6. Guideline 3: Use Visual Analogies Especially for More Abstract or Unfamiliar Concepts12.7. Guideline 4: Display Related Concepts Together Applying the Contiguity Principle12.8. Guideline 5: Use Organizational Visuals to Display Related Concepts and Their Features12.9. Guideline 6: Promote Learner Engagement with Concept Visuals12.10. Tips for Visualizing Concepts12.10.1. Common Mistakes to Avoid when Visualizing Concepts12.10.2. COMING NEXT12.11. For More Information
13. How to Visualize Facts
13.1. What Are Facts?13.1.1. Concrete versus Discrete Facts13.2. Teaching Facts13.2.1. Teach in Context13.2.2. Provide Memory Support13.2.3. On Automatic13.3. How to Visualize Facts13.4. Guideline 1: Use Representational Visuals Placed in Job Context to Illustrate Concrete Facts13.4.1. When the Main Lesson Content is Facts13.5. Guideline 2: Display Discrete Factual Data Where It Can Easily Be Seen When Needed13.6. Guideline 3: Use Organizational Visuals to Display Multiple Discrete Facts13.7. Guideline 4: Use Mnemonic Visuals When Physical Memory Aids Are Not Available13.8. Guideline 5: Use Relational Visuals to Illustrate or Support Discovery of Relationships or Trends in Numeric Data13.9. Guideline 6: Promote Engagement with Important Factual Visuals13.9.1. Tips for Visualizing Facts13.9.2. Common Mistakes to Avoid When Visualizing Factual Information13.9.3. COMING NEXT13.10. For More Information
14. How to Visualize Processes
14.1. What Are Processes?14.1.1. Who Needs Process Knowledge?14.2. Teaching Processes14.3. How to Visualize Processes14.4. Guideline 1: Use Transformational Visuals to Show State Changes in Processes14.4.1. Are Animations Better for Learning Processes Than Static Drawings?14.5. Guideline 2: Manage Load by Teaching System Components First, Presenting Words in Audio, and Directing Attention14.5.1. Teach System Components Prior to Teaching the Entire System14.5.2. Present Words in Audio versus Text in Multimedia Lessons14.5.3. Focus the Learner's Attention14.6. Guideline 3: Use Interpretive Visuals to Represent Abstract Processes14.7. Guideline 4: Promote Engagement with Visuals in Ways That Help Learners Build a Cause-and-Effect Model of the System14.8. Tips for Visualizing Processes14.8.1. Common Mistakes to Avoid When Visualizing Processes14.8.2. COMING NEXT14.9. For More Information
15. How to Visualize Principles
15.1. What Are Principles?15.1.1. The Transfer Challenge for Far-Transfer Tasks15.2. Problem-Centered Learning Environments15.2.1. Design of PCL15.3. Retrospective Case-Based Learning15.4. Teaching Principles As Laws or Theories15.5. How to Visualize Principles15.6. Guideline 1: Use Representational Visuals of the Job Environment to Display a PCL Lesson15.6.1. Do More Realistic Visuals Promote More Learning?15.7. Guideline 2: Use Graphic Design Devices to Manage Cognitive Load During PCL15.8. Guideline 3: Assign Analysis of Video-Taped Cases for Learning of Principles That Involve a High Degree of Interpersonal Skill15.9. Guideline 4: Engage Learners with Explanatory Visuals to Build Rich Mental Models That Underlie Principles15.9.1. Use Simple Interpretive Visuals15.9.2. Engagement with Interpretive Visuals15.10. Tips for Visualizing Principles15.10.1. Common Mistakes to Avoid When Visualizing Principles15.10.2. COMING NEXT15.11. For More Information15.12. SUMMARY OF SECTION THREE15.12.1. Objective of the Section15.12.2. Summary of Guidelines15.12.2.1. Procedures15.12.2.2. Concepts15.12.2.3. Facts15.12.2.4. Processes15.12.2.5. Principles
IV. Introduction to Section Four: How to Plan and Communicate Your Visuals
16. Define the Visual Context
16.1. What to Decide and When16.2. Assess the Learning Landscape16.2.1. Profile the Learner16.2.2. Analyze the Environment in Which the Learning Materials Will Be Used16.2.3. Determine the Delivery Medium16.3. Consider Production16.3.1. The Equipment16.3.2. Formats16.3.3. Schedules16.3.4. Programming As Production16.4. Avoiding Unhappy Endings16.4.1. COMING NEXT16.5. Resources and Organizations16.5.1. Print Organizations and Publications16.5.2. Computer Graphics Organizations
17. Design the Visual Approach
17.1. Planning Your Visual Approach17.2. Treatment Meetings17.2.1. Does Your Project Warrant a Treatment Meeting?17.2.2. Who Attends?17.2.3. What Are the Prerequisites?17.2.4. What Is the Outcome?17.3. What to Consider17.3.1. Determine Overall Instructional Strategy17.3.2. Decide What Carries the Story Line17.3.3. Decide the Size and Orientation17.4. Rough Out the Layout: Style and Available Real Estate17.4.1. Style17.4.2. Available Real Estate17.4.3. Navigational and Functionality Needs17.5. A Semi-Fictional Case Study17.5.1. COMING NEXT17.6. Resources
18. Visualize Individual Graphics
18.1. Creating Individual Visuals That Work18.2. Roles in Graphics Development18.2.1. Three Structures of the Design Team18.3. Getting Beyond Clip Art: Tips to Visualize Your Individual Graphics18.3.1. Start Thinking Visually from the Onset18.3.2. Use Tools to Help You Capture Details18.3.3. Design Graphics That Will Be Used Throughout the Course Early in Your Process18.3.4. Collect Different Visual Data Depending on the Types of Content18.3.5. Watch Movies with a Visual Eye18.3.6. Get the Big Picture18.3.7. Work from the Visuals; Work from the Content18.3.8. Stetch18.3.9. Test It Out18.4. A Case Study Continued: Sanji's Graphic18.4.1. COMING NEXT18.5. Resources
19. Communicate Your Graphic Plans
19.1. Who Needs to Know19.2. Communicating the Look and Feel19.2.1. Samples19.3. Communicating Ideas for the Development of Individual Graphics19.4. Communicating Graphic Layout Plans19.4.1. Flavors of Storyboards—Layout Design in e-Learning19.4.2. Difference Between a Storyboard and a Script19.4.3. Communicating Graphics to Production Staff19.5. Case Study: Sanji Talks to the Artist19.5.1. COMING NEXT19.6. Resources
20. Apply the Principles
20.1. The End-User System Application Training20.1.1. Establish the Instructional Goal20.1.2. Determine the Context20.1.3. Design the Visual Approach20.1.4. Identify the Communication Function of Visual to Match Content Types20.1.5. Apply Principles of Psychological Instructional Events to Visual Design Decisions20.1.6. Alternative Training Delivery Medium20.2. The Investment Club's Financial Basics Training20.2.1. Define Goals20.2.2. Determine the Context20.2.3. Design Visual Approach20.2.4. Identify Communication Function of Visuals to Match Content Types20.2.5. Apply Principles of Psychological Instructional Events to Visual Design Decisions20.2.6. Alternative Training Delivery Medium20.3. SUMMARY OF SECTION FOUR20.3.1. Objective of the Section20.3.2. Summary of Tips and Guidelines20.3.2.1. Define the Visual Context20.3.2.2. Design the Visual Approach20.3.2.3. Visualize Individual Graphics20.3.2.4. Communicate Your Graphic Plans
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Pfeiffer Publications Guide

Content preview from Graphics for Learning: Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing, and Evaluating Visuals in Training Materials

Chapter 7. Plan Graphics to Help Learners Build Mental Models

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Learners construct new mental models by integrating content from the lesson with activated prior knowledge. A mental model is a memory structure that supports higher-order thinking tasks such as solving problems and making discriminations. Visuals that depict relationships are more effective to help learners build mental models than are visuals that simply represent content.

We call these relationship-building visuals explanatory graphics. In this chapter we present research, psychological rationale, and examples to support the following guidelines:

Use organizational visuals such as graphic organizers to show qualitative relationships among lesson content
Select and design ...

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Graphics for Learning: Proven Guidelines for Planning, Designing, and Evaluating Visuals in Training Materials

by Ruth C. Clark, Chopeta Lyons

Chapter 7. Plan Graphics to Help Learners Build Mental Models

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