book

Organizational Culture and Leadership, Fourth Edition

by Edgar H. Schein

August 2010

Beginner

464 pages

11h 43m

English

Jossey-Bass

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How Is This Book Different from the Second Edition of My 2009 Corporate Culture Survival Guide?How This Book Is OrganizedAcknowledgments
1.1. What Needs to Be Explained?1.2. How Does the Concept of Culture Help?1.3. Culture: An Empirically Based Abstraction1.3.1. Structural Stability1.3.2. Depth1.3.3. Breadth1.3.4. Patterning or Integration1.4. Culture Formally Defined1.5. Culture Content1.5.1. The Process of Socialization or Acculturation1.6. Can Culture Be Inferred from Only Behavior?1.7. Do Occupations Have Cultures?1.8. Summary and Conclusions
2.1. Artifacts2.2. Espoused Beliefs and Values2.3. Basic Underlying Assumptions2.4. Summary and Conclusions
3.1. The Digital Equipment Corp.3.1.1. Artifacts: Encountering the Company3.1.2. Espoused Beliefs and Values3.1.3. Basic Assumptions: The DEC Paradigm3.2. Ciba-Geigy3.2.1. Artifacts—Encountering Ciba-Geigy3.2.2. Espoused Beliefs and Values3.2.3. Basic Assumptions—The Ciba-Geigy Company Paradigm3.3. Summary and Conclusions
4.1. Three Generic Subcultures4.1.1. The Operator Subculture4.1.2. The Engineering/Design Subculture4.1.3. The Executive Subculture4.2. Microcultures4.3. Summary and Conclusions
5.1. Shared Assumptions About Mission, Strategy, and Goals5.2. Shared Assumptions About Goals Derived from the Mission5.3. Shared Assumptions About Means to Achieve Goals: Structure, Systems, and Processes5.4. Shared Assumptions About Measuring Results and Correction Mechanisms5.4.1. What to Measure5.4.2. Consensus on Means of Measurement5.5. Shared Assumptions About Remedial and Repair Strategies5.6. Summary and Conclusions

6.1. Creating a Common Language and Conceptual Categories6.2. Defining Group Boundaries and Identity6.3. Distributing Power, Authority, and Status6.4. Developing Rules for Relationships6.5. Allocating Rewards and Punishment6.6. Managing the Unmanageable and Explaining the Unexplainable6.7. Summary and Conclusions
7.1. Shared Assumptions About the Nature of Reality and Truth7.1.1. Levels of Reality7.2. High Context and Low Context7.3. Moralism-Pragmatism7.4. What Is "Information"?7.5. Summary and Conclusions
8.1. Assumptions About Time8.1.1. Basic Time Orientation8.1.2. Monochronic and Polychronic Time8.1.3. Subculture Variations: Planning Time and Development Time8.1.4. Discretionary Time Horizons and Degree of Accuracy8.1.5. Temporal Symmetry, Pacing, and Entrainment8.1.6. Summary8.2. Assumptions About the Nature of Space8.3. Distance and Relative Placement8.3.1. The Symbolism of Space8.3.2. Body Language8.3.3. Time, Space, and Activity Interaction8.4. Summary and Conclusions
9.1. Assumptions About Human Nature9.2. Assumptions About Appropriate Human Activity9.2.1. The Doing Orientation9.2.2. The Being Orientation9.2.3. The Being-in-Becoming Orientation9.3. Assumptions About the Nature of Human Relationships9.3.1. Individualism and Collectivism9.3.2. Power Distance9.3.3. Basic Characteristics of Role Relationships9.3.4. Rules of Interaction—The Joint Effect of Time, Space, and Relationship Assumptions9.4. Summary and Conclusions
10.1. Why Typologies and Why Not?10.1.1. Problems in the Use of Surveys10.1.2. When to Use Surveys10.2. Typologies That Focus on Assumptions About Authority and Intimacy10.3. Typologies of Corporate Character and Culture10.3.1. Examples of Survey-Based Profiles of Cultures10.4. Examples of Using A Priori Criteria for Culture Evaluation10.5. Summary and Conclusions
11.1. Why Decipher Culture?11.1.1. Deciphering from the Outside11.1.2. Deciphering in a Researcher Role11.1.2.1. Clinical Research: Deciphering in a Consultant/Helper Role.11.1.2.2. How Valid Are Clinically Gathered Data?11.2. Ethical Issues in Deciphering Culture11.2.1. Risks of an Analysis for Research Purposes11.2.2. Risks of an Internal Analysis11.2.3. Professional Obligations of the Culture Analyst11.3. Summary and Conclusions
12.1. Group Formation Through Originating and Marker Events12.1.1. How Individual Intentions Become Group Consequences12.1.2. Building Meaning Through Sharing Perceptions and Articulating Feeling12.1.3. Leadership as Timely Intervention12.2. Stage 1: Dealing with Assumptions About Authority12.2.1. Building New Norms Around Authority12.2.2. Reality Test and Catharsis12.3. Stage 2: Building Norms Around Intimacy12.3.1. Reality Test and Catharsis12.3.2. Which Norms Survive? The Role of Experience and Learning12.4. Stage 3: Group Work and Functional Familiarity12.5. Stage 4: Group Maturity12.6. Summary and Conclusions
13.1. Culture Beginnings Through Founder/Leader Actions13.1.1. Sam Steinberg13.1.2. Fred Smithfield Enterprises13.1.3. Ken Olsen/DEC13.1.4. Wozniak and Jobs in Apple, Watson in IBM, and Packard and Hewlett in HP13.2. Summary and Conclusions
14.1. How Leaders Embed Their Beliefs, Values, and Assumptions14.1.1. Primary Embedding Mechanisms14.1.1.1. What Leaders Pay Attention To, Measure, and Control.14.1.1.1.1. Emotional Outbursts.14.1.1.1.2. Inferences from What Leaders Do Not Pay Attention To.14.1.1.1.3. Inconsistency and Conflict.14.1.1.2. Leader Reactions to Critical Incidents and Organizational Crises.14.1.1.3. How Leaders Allocate Resources.14.1.1.4. Deliberate Role Modeling, Teaching, and Coaching.14.1.1.5. How Leaders Allocate Rewards and Status.14.1.1.6. How Leaders Select, Promote, and Excommunicate.14.1.2. Primary Embedding Mechanisms: Some Concluding Observations14.2. Secondary Articulation and Reinforcement Mechanisms14.2.1. Organizational Design and Structure14.2.2. Organizational Systems and Procedures14.2.3. Rites and Rituals of the Organization14.2.4. Design of Physical Space, Facades, and Buildings14.2.5. Stories About Important Events and People14.2.6. Formal Statements of Philosophy, Creeds, and Charters14.3. Summary and Conclusions
15.1. Differentiation and the Growth of Subcultures15.1.1. Functional/Occupational Differentiation15.1.2. Geographical Differentiation15.1.3. Differentiation by Product, Market, or Technology15.1.4. Divisionalization15.1.5. Differentiation by Hierarchical Level15.2. Summary and Conclusions
16.1. Founding and Early Growth16.1.1. Incremental Change Through General and Specific Evolution16.1.1.1. General Evolution.16.1.1.2. Specific Evolution.16.1.2. Self-Guided Evolution Through Insight16.1.3. Managed Evolution Through Hybrids16.2. Transition to Midlife: Problems of Succession16.2.1. Culture Change Through Systematic Promotion from Selected Subcultures16.2.2. Culture Change Through Technological Seduction16.2.3. Culture Change Through Infusion of Outsiders16.3. Organizational Maturity and Potential Decline16.3.1. Culture Change Through Scandal and Explosion of Myths16.3.2. Culture Change Through Turnarounds16.3.3. Culture Change Through Mergers and Acquisitions16.3.4. Culture Change Through Destruction and Rebirth16.4. Summary and Conclusions
17.1. The Psycho-Social Dynamics of Organizational Change17.2. Unfreezing/Disconfirmation17.3. Survival Anxiety Versus Learning Anxiety17.4. How to Create Psychological Safety17.5. Cognitive Restructuring17.5.1. Learning New Concepts and New Meanings for Old Concepts17.5.2. Imitation and Identification Versus Scanning and Trial-and-Error Learning17.6. Refreezing17.7. Principles in Regard to Culture Change17.8. Summary and Conclusions
18.1. Rapid Deciphering—A Multistep Group Process18.1.1. Step One: Obtaining Leadership Commitment18.1.2. Step Two: Selecting Groups for Self-Assessment18.1.3. Step Three: Selecting an Appropriate Setting for the Group Self-Assessment18.1.4. Step Four: Explaining the Purpose of the Group Meeting (15 mins.)18.1.5. Step Five: A Short Lecture on How to Think About Culture (15 mins.)18.1.6. Step Six: Eliciting Descriptions of the Artifacts (60 mins.)18.1.7. Step Seven: Identifying Espoused Values (15–30 mins.)18.1.8. Step Eight: Identifying Shared Underlying Assumptions (15–30 mins.)18.1.9. Step Nine: Identifying Cultural Aids and Hindrances (30–60 mins.)18.1.10. Step Ten: Decisions on Next Steps (30 mins.)18.2. What If Culture Elements Need to Change?18.3. Summary and Conclusions
19.1. Illustration 1. Beta Service Company—Rapid Change Through Behavior Modification19.1.1. Lessons Learned19.2. Illustration 2. MA-COM—Revising a Change Agenda as a Result of Cultural Insight19.2.1. Lessons Learned19.3. Illustration 3. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers—Reassessing Mission19.3.1. Lessons Learned19.4. Illustration 4. Apple Computer—Culture Assessment as Part of a Long-Range Planning Process19.4.1. Lessons Learned19.5. Illustration 5: Ciba-Geigy—Did the Culture Change?19.5.1. Initial Contact and First Annual Meeting19.5.1.1. Impact of First Annual Meeting.19.5.1.2. First Year's Work: Getting Acquainted with the Culture.19.5.1.3. Unfreezing at the Second Annual Meeting.19.5.1.4. Inducing Survival Anxiety.19.5.1.5. Providing Some Psychological Safety.19.5.1.6. Creating a Structure for the Redirection Project: Project Task Forces as a "Parallel System"19.5.2. Second Year: Consolidation of the Redirection Project19.5.2.1. Third Annual Meeting: The Culture Lecture Disaster.19.5.2.2. Assessment During the Third Year.19.6. Summary and Conclusions
20.1. What Might a Learning Culture Look Like?20.1.1. 1. Proactivity20.1.2. 2. Commitment to Learning to Learn20.1.3. 3. Positive Assumptions About Human Nature (Theory Y)20.1.4. 4. Belief That the Environment Can Be Managed20.1.5. 5. Commitment to Truth Through Pragmatism and Inquiry20.1.6. 6. Positive Orientation Toward the Future20.1.7. 7. Commitment to Full and Open Task-Relevant Communication20.1.8. 8. Commitment to Cultural Diversity20.1.9. 9. Commitment to Systemic Thinking20.1.10. 10. Belief That Cultural Analysis Is a Valid Set of Lenses for Understanding and Improving the World20.2. Why These Dimensions?20.3. Learning-Oriented Leadership20.3.1. Learning Leadership in Culture Creation20.3.2. Leadership in Organizational Midlife20.3.3. Leadership in Mature and Declining Organizations20.3.4. Leadership and Culture in Mergers and Acquisitions20.3.5. Leadership and Culture in Partnerships, Joint Ventures, and Strategic Alliances20.4. Implications for the Selection and Development of Leaders20.4.1. 1. Perception and Insight20.4.2. 2. Motivation20.4.3. 3. Emotional Strength20.4.4. 4. Ability to Change the Cultural Assumptions20.4.5. 5. Ability to Create Involvement and Participation20.5. Summary and Conclusions
21.1. Cultural Intelligence21.2. The Concept of a Temporary Cultural Island21.2.1. Focused Dialogue as a Cultural Island21.3. Dialogue as a Cultural Island for Multicultural Exploration21.3.1. How to Set Up a Dialogue21.3.2. When and Why to Use Dialogue and Other Forms of Cultural Islands21.4. Summary and Conclusions21.5. A Final Word

Content preview from Organizational Culture and Leadership, Fourth Edition

Chapter 8. DEEPER CULTURAL ASSUMPTIONS: THE NATURE OF TIME AND SPACE

The deep structure of culture not only consists of how we perceive reality and truth but also how we orient ourselves toward our physical and human environment, which involves unconscious and taken-for-granted concepts of time and space.

Assumptions About Time

The perception and experience of time are among the most central aspects of how any group functions. When people differ in their experience of time, tremendous communication and relationship problems typically emerge. Consider how anxious or irritated we get when someone is late, when we feel our time has been wasted, when we feel that we did not get enough "air time" to make our point, when we feel "out of phase" with someone, ...