book

Directing the Documentary, 7th Edition

Name: Directing the Documentary, 7th Edition
ISBN: 9781000054781

by Michael Rabiger, Courtney Hermann

May 2020

Beginner to intermediate

594 pages

20h 36m

English

Routledge

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Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Table of Contents
Preface to the seventh edition
Contents of companion website
BOOK I: GETTING STARTED
PART 1: YOU AND YOUR IDEAS

1 You and film authorship
Start making films nowArtistic identityUnfinished business: how we are marked by lifeDiscovering for oneselfProject AP-1 self-inventory (marks and themes)The work we must doProject AP-2 authorial identityProject AP-3 what is the family drama?The work of the directorWitnessing with the future boxEthnographyWorking for social changeA rewarding way of lifeLearning from what you shootSatisfying an audienceUniversal versus parochialImportance of creativityA prelude to directing fictionGetting an educationFilm schoolTeaching yourselfPlanning your futureJournalsInternshipsHands-on learning
2 The nature of documentary
OriginsGrierson’s definitionDocumentary as artAn oral tale with a purposeArt finds orderCharacters with goalsPhilosophies of approachObservational modeParticipatory modeThe risk of incursionGiving, not just takingA workhorse genreTesting for documentary valuesLearning from your workThe artistic process and your individual voiceWhen you lose your wayPrivacy and competition issuesHostile environmentsHands-on learning
PART 2: DOCUMENTARIES AND FILM LANGUAGE
3 How the documentary developed
Technology and screen languageBirth of the cinemaHow documentary emerged from nonfiction cinemaDocumentary paradoxesThe cinematic eyeSound comes to the documentaryEssay films and traveloguesShooting goes mobileDirect cinema (observational documentary)Participatory documentaryPatience and privileged momentsDocumentary and fictionThe ascendency of editingObjectivity or subjectivity?Which approach is best?Video and digital technologyModern equivalenciesFlaherty docudramaExpository or essay modeObservational modeParticipatory modeReflexive modePoetic modePerformative modeDocuseriesTrue crimeUnscriptedHistory investigatedHands-on learning
4 Constructing reality
The “Contract” and expositionActuality and evidenceDocumentary is not reality, but a constructTypes of actualityObjectivity, balanced reporting, and propagandaFairnessEvidence then and nowDramatic terms and principlesActive characters in conflictDramaturgyAuthored constructsConvictions and a working hypothesisFinding conflict in real lifeAP-16: Conflict and sub-conflictCharacter-driven and plot-driven storiesDramatic tensionThe need for developmentFilm discourseForm and styleThe three-act story structureHands-on learning
5 Story elements and film grammar
Perception and making storiesAP-15: Profiling a locationScreen language mimics consciousnessDocumentary ingredients and human awarenessShots are like the human gazeCutsCamera movementSP-18: Live cameraworkMotivated camera movements and cutsDenotation and connotationThe camera in relation to actionThe actor and the acted-uponObserving a conversationHunting subtextsSP-19: Covering a discussionHidden agendas and subtextsAttention and focusEye contact and eyelinesLooking at and looking throughScene geography and axesSubject-to-subject or scene axisCamera-to-subject or camera axisPanning and cuttingScreen directionChanging screen directionShot duration, rhythm, and demand on the audienceGenerating optionsShot durationVisual rhythmRhythms help us concentrateUsing speech rhythmsSequences as building blocksElisionTransitions and transitional devicesPicture transitionsSound transitionsLap cutsDual roles: observer and storytellerThe observerThe storytellerConflicts between the twoHands-on learning
PART 3: PREPRODUCTION
6 Developing story ideas
IdeationBeginning the writing processStory sourcesMaking an idea databaseKeeping a journalNewspapersWebsitesHistoryLegendsMythsFamily storiesChildhood storiesSocial science and social historyFictionSelecting a subjectTesting a subjectDon’t bite off more than you can chewNarrow the frameChoosing a central characterCharacter is destinyLocating and raising the stakesManipulation dangersUsing the medium to stir feelingsShock valuePrimary evidenceTesting for cinematic qualitiesMood mattersLocal can be largeTelling the storyCharactersInternal strugglesExternal pressuresWhat to avoidDisplace and transformHands-on learning
7 Hypothesis, research and plan
Choosing a storyCover your backDon’t commit without planningMaking a planA note on film writingOutlining a working hypothesisProject DP-12 developing a short working hypothesis (Book I)ResearchingDecide research methods according to subjectGaining accessTaking notesSeeking cooperationOpen and leading questionsWhen research is mission impossibleInviting trustDefining the paradigmFilming organizations or institutionsDocumentaries evolve from relationshipsMinefield subjectsTypes of researchQuantitative researchQualitative researchArchival materialFair use and best practicesChoosing important charactersCharacter typesCentral charactersConsolidating research into a planShootable evidenceMaking a content inventoryAccentuating style and contentProject DP-1 dramatic content helperHands-on learning
8 Developing ideas for a short documentary
PitchingWho/what/when/where/whyA typical pitchCritiquing a pitchPost-filming pitchesPitching forumsWriting a treatmentThe Smallest in the LitterBobcatSchedulingSigned agreementsLocation agreementPersonal releaseBudgetHands-on learning
9 Partnership
Documentary roles and responsibilitiesDirectorDirector of photography (DP), and/or camera operatorSound recordistDeciding on partnersWhy temperaments matterPut commitments in writing
PART 4: PRODUCTION
Workflow
10 Capturing sound
Sound design and soundscapesSound terms and proceduresAcoustics and the hand-clap testHeadphones to monitor your workSignal, noise and signal-to-noise ratioAmbienceHow sound behavesSignal decay over distanceResonance and echoMicrophonesTransducersMicrophone axis and directionalitySound perspectiveDefensive measuresSound environments and signal-to-noise ratioWhy sound consistency mattersSound recordingUsing multiple inputsBalanced and unbalanced inputsStrain reliefDigital peak metersAutomatic sound levelSetting sound levels manuallyMonitoringMicrophone types and pickup patternsPower suppliesPickup patternsOmnidirectional micsCardioid micsShotgun micsLavalier, lapel, or body micsBody mic precautionsRoll-offWireless micsWired micsSpares, accessories and first aidMicrophone handlingHolding the boom poleWindscreens and shock mountsWhen sound and picture subjects divergeThe recordist in contact with the camera operatorSafety coverVirtuoso performancesShootingLocation spotting and ambient noiseSounds on the setReference trackShooting interiorsPresence track recordingSound to help the editorHow the editor uses presence tracksAmbience inconsistenciesWild tracksSound effectsSoundscape constructionHands-on learning
11 Lighting
Light qualityHard or specular lightSoft lightLighting instrumentsLight quality and lighting instrumentsOpen-face quartz lampsSafetyLight emitting diodes (LEDs)Color temperaturePower suppliesPower requirements vary by instrumentCalculating consumptionLightingWhy you may need lightingCuring contrast problemsExposure and depth of fieldAvoiding the over-bright backgroundLighting methodologyBackgroundsKey light directionFill lightBacklightPracticalCheatingTwo basic lighting methodsAdding to a baseBaselightKey lightThree point lightingHands-on learning
12 Camera
Camera basicsDSLR cameras and timecodeBody designViewfinderCamera controlsProfessional optionsEquipment checkoutGolden rule #1, test it firstGolden rule #2: prepare for the worstColor balancing the cameraWhite balance optionsAutomaticManualPresetManually set or customizedWhite balance memoryShooting under mixed color temperaturesCan’t I fix color in postproduction?ExposureAutomatic exposureManual exposureApertureShutter speedBacklight controlPicture gainISOFilteringNeutral densityWhat other filters doLensesInterchangeable lensesPrime lensesNormal lensesThe telephotoThe wide-angleThe zoomLenses and perspectiveAspect ratioFocus and depth of field (DOF)Automatic focusing (AF)Manual focusingMacro focusingLens protectionFocus and depth of field (DOF)Power suppliesCamera support systemsTripod and accessoriesPan/tilt head setupQuick release plateMobile support systemsMonitors and viewfindersCoverage and composing the shotRule of thirdsMatching shotsLead spaceHandheld composingCovering two people standing in conversationShooting with safety coverage in mindCamera operatingTripod or handheld?Check and recheck compositionCamera operator’s interior monologueOperator’s body mechanicsRefocusing during a shotHandheld shotsWalking a handheld cameraTest your handheld tracking skillsTripod preparation and useError recoveryOperating with editing in mindInserts and cutawaysEstablishing shotsCamera operator’s checklistHands-on learning
13 Directing and interviewing
Directing participantsBriefing participantsBlockingIn search of naturalnessBackground musicDirecting the crewCommunicationWho is responsible for whatHospitalityWorking atmosphereCrew unityCrew etiquetteCheck the shotPreparing the crewRun-upPositioning yourselfCommunicating with the crewCamera operatorSound recordistSensory overloadBreaksWho else can call “Cut!”Capturing sound presenceSecuring the personal release“It’s a Wrap”Interviewing overviewSound and camera for interviewingSound coverageCamera coverageInterviewee eyelinesThe interview processAvoiding voice overlapsSilence is goldenFull responsesValid and invalid questioningPress for detail, follow up leadsMulti-person coverageEnding gracefullyHands-on learning
PART 5: POSTPRODUCTION
14 Creating the first assembly
Setting up for editingComputer storageWindows 10 PC set upApple macOS set upForestalling workflow problemsEditing equipmentMedia vs. dataWho editsDoing your own editingWorking with an editorTranscriptsMaking themA workaround solution to transcribingTranscripts can be misleadingPostproduction overviewBeginning the editing processEditing with proxiesOrganizing source materialDouble system synchronizingLoggingBefore the assemblyInitial viewing sessionsEditor and director’s viewing sessionDailies notebookGut feelings matterFinding a structureThe contractWhy structure mattersTime and structural alternativesStories need dramatic tensionFinding an action-determined structurePerils of speech-based narrative structuresStories need developmentMake use of classical talesMicrocosm and macrocosmThe assemblyThe only film is in the dailiesA subtractive processSeeking a visually-driven filmRelying on transcriptsBeginning to assembleRenderingSaving each stageDon’t micromanageFacing the first assemblyReturn to innocenceRecognizing your film’s ideal lengthDiagnostic questioningWhat works and what doesn’tThe documentarian as dramatistPleasing your audienceWhat next, when the dust settles?Hands-on learning
15 Developing the edit
Compressing and juxtaposingElision and visual rhythmCutting between sequencesCutting within a sequenceAction-match cuttingCutting on actionJump cuttingUsing fast or slow motionParallel storytellingCutting to a rhythmUnifying material into a flowThe audience as active participantsThe lap cutMono- and bi-directional attentionDialogue sequencesUsing lap cutsSubtextsTransitions between sequencesAnticipatory or holdover soundEditing pitfallsRegaining perspectiveMaking a diagnostic flow chartA trial showingSurviving your critics and using what they sayParticipant viewingsCaveats before participant viewingsThe uses of procrastinationTry, try againHands-on learning
16 Fine cut, music, audio and color correction
Approaching a fine cutCheck source materialLooking ahead to the sound mixSound designSound compositionPsychoacoustics and functions of soundSound clichésPost-synchronizing dialogue (aka “automatic dialogue replacement” or ADR)Recreating sound effects (SFX)Sound effects librariesConsidering musicRevealing hidden dimensionsHelping narrative structureIndicating emotional depthsMusic misusedFinding ready-recorded musicCopyrighted musicStock musicIntegrating musicStarting and stopping music sectionsEditingWithin a compositionIn and out pointsAttack-sustain-decay cuttingOther sound componentsNarration or voice-overHard sound effectsUsing atmospheresSound mixOrganize your tracksCheckerboardingCross-dissolvesNoise reductionEqualizationCompressionAdjusting levelsWatch your metersMonitors and testingColor correction and gradingWaveform monitorRGB ParadeVectorscopeLUTsVignetteTitlesNaming your filmFont, layout, and sizeOverladen titlesSpellingTitle durationsCopyright markTranscript and subtitlingClosed captions and audio descriptionsAcknowledgmentsLegal omissionsWebsite press and kitCompetitions and festivals
BOOK II: ADVANCED CONCEPTS
PART 6: DOCUMENTARY AESTHETICS
StorytellingEnter the storytellerGive yourself a storytelling role to play
17 Point of view and storytelling
Monological versus dialogical filmsPoint of viewFilm, literature, and graphic artWill and empathyUsing your emotional selfPOV in screen dramaObservational or participatory approachOverview of generating POVsRange of POV on the screenSingle POV (character in the film)Multiple characters’ POVs within the filmOmniscient POVPersonal POVReflexivity and representationSelf-reflexivityFilm language and the authorial voiceFinding fresh languageStoryteller and POV question checklistHands-on learning
18 Dramatic development, time and story structure
Plots and their central charactersPlot and the rules of the universe“Character is fate”Active and passiveHeroes and heroinesThe antiheroCharacter developmentDrama divided into actsThe three-act structureFour- and five-act structuresThe dramatic arcBegin analysis by pinpointing the crisisApplying dramatic analysis to directing documentaryScenes are dramas in microcosmThe director as catalystBeats and dramatic unitsIdentifying conflictsA scene may contain one dramatic unit or severalInhalation and exhalationThe director as dramatistTime and structurePreparing for the predictableStories need developmentDrama, chronology, and the documentaryThe event-centered filmMulti-faceted eventsThe process filmThe journey filmThe historical filmThe biographical filmNon-chronological timeTime reorderedPoetic timeThe journey of inquiryThe walled-city filmThe thesis filmWhen time is unimportantThe catalogue filmWhen no time-structure predominatesStructure questionnaireHands-on learning
19 Form, style and creativity
Documentary aestheticsForm and style in documentaryStyle you can chooseStyle you can’t chooseStylizing actuality and stylized actualityAesthetic categoriesCreative dissatisfactionSetting creative limitsProject DP-14 form and style worksheetHands-on learning
20 Reconstruction, reenactment and docudrama
Documentary reconstructionSubjective reconstructionHistorical reconstructionReenactmentTruthful labelingUsing actorsWholesale reconstructionBudgetary constraintsDocudramaFake documentaries and mockumentariesDocumentary and its fiction counterpartsHands-on learning
21 Values and ethics
PowerInformed consentResponsibilitiesMoral obligationsEvidence and ethicsBehalfers speaking for othersEmbedded valuesParticipantsEnvironmentFamily dynamicsAuthorityIn totalEthical conflicts in the fieldFilm is collaborative, so is responsibilityArt as displaced autobiographyGiving, not just takingHands-on learning
PART 7: ADVANCED PRODUCTION ISSUES
PART 7A: ADVANCED PREPRODUCTION
22 Handling larger projects
Production departmentProducerUnit production manager (UPM)Sound and camera assistantsSound assistantsCamera assistantsGripsGafferInternsAdministering the crewCommunicationWho is responsible for whatWorking atmosphereCrew etiquetteProcedures for larger unitsSync using a clapperboardShot identificationSingle systemDouble systemAlternative numbering systemsScene/setup/take systemCumulative setup/take systemKeeping logsCamera logSound logFile naming and metadata editingIn the cameraIn the audio recorderThe countdown to shootingStarting without a clapperMic tapsBoard on end (BOE)Syncing up dailiesHands-on learning
23 Relations with participants, story development and funding proposals
Relations with participantsProfessional standardsGuiding principlesEthical documentaryRelations with sourcesAccuracy and verificationDo no harmResisting pressuresDocumentary dilemmasCompromising yourselfWhen deception is justifiedInformed consentProject DP-13 using the full working hypothesis (Book II)Exposition, evidence and dramatic tensionExpositionVolitionFraming the ‘Problem’Challenging the audience to make judgmentsCredibility of witnesses and testimonyCredibility of evidenceMaking a database and marshaling evidenceDeciding central charactersDefer choosing participantsWhen in doubt, decide from a recordingStory developmentList your action materialDevelop each scene’s dramatic contentAlternative structures from a card gameTry your materials against the dramatic curveDeveloping a proposalBe specific to the fundCovering all your basesWriting qualityCategorized informationThe demo reelTreatmentModel applicationHands-on learning
24 Advanced technology, budgeting, scheduling
Workflow and equipmentDigital acquisitionResolutions, frame rates and formatsAspect ratioFrame rates and scanningResolutionPicture compressionSensor sizeProfessional camerasConsumer camerasDigital soundDouble-system syncPostproductionBudgetingAbove and below the lineInsurancesBudgeting and scheduling softwareDrawing up an equipment listKeep it simpleOver-elaborate equipmentScheduling the shootLocations and shooting orderShooting in chronological orderScheduling for key scenesEmotional demand orderWeather and other contingency coverageAllocation of shooting time per sceneUnder- or over-schedulingThe call sheetHands-on learning
25 Preparations before directing
The directing planCastingReminders for each sequenceDrama and dialecticsImageryPoint of viewDevelopmentThematic or other goalsAesthetic concernsGenreStoryteller POVTest your assumptionsObtaining permissionsPeoplePlacesCopyrightCrewInsuranceTrial shootingScouting locationsCameraSoundLogistics and schedulingLongitudinal developmentLocation permitsPermissionOn private propertyHandheld camerasTripod or other camera support systemsGuerillas in the mistThe personal release formCrowd scene releasesLegal issuesPaying participantsCelebritiesPeople in dire needHands-on learning
PART 7B: ADVANCED PRODUCTION
26 optics and perception
Spatial perceptionCamera eye and human eyeCheating spaceLens characteristicsHow we use perspectiveVarying apparent separationManipulating perspectiveFocal lengthPerspective changes when camera-to-subject distance changesLenses and image textureLens speedDepthZooming versus dollyingGetting a film lookDepth of fieldDOF practicalitiesSplit-field diopters and tilt-shift lensesCompositionStatic compositionAspects of visual designImages in succession and visual rhythmDynamic compositionInternal and external compositionHands-on learning
27 Advanced cameras and support equipment
PreliminariesArchiving issuesCompatibilityHiring equipmentShooting abroadCamera examplesCanonSonyChoosing a camera and comparing criteriaCamera support equipmentMonopodTripod and pan/tilt headSlidersShoulder rigsStabilizersMotorized stabilizersDolliesDronesSettings and optionsAspect ratioShutter speed and motionTimecodeShooting formats and the ‘Look’The final look starts in pre-productionShooting format and visual flexibilityStandard HD and cine gammaLog profile and LUTsLook-up tables (LUTs)Planning a film’s ‘Look’RAW videoCamera accessoriesMatte box and filtersLens hoodCamera aestheticsCamera heightAdapting to location exigenciesBackgroundsRevealing subtextsCompromises for the cameraStrobingCare of people and equipmentTravel in wild or hazardous areasEmergencies
28 Advanced location sound
Sound monitoringSingle or double system recordingSmart slatesCreeping syncUsing the camera to record soundSound recordersLocation recordersThree backup measuresSound codecsEQ and roll-offDigital peak metersVolume unit (VU) metersPeak testsMultiple mic inputsPhasingRecording spatial audioPhantom powerSound mixersMicrophone types and placement tipsCardioidHyper-cardioid or shotgunLavalierWireless mikesUsing the boompoleWhat to rent and what to own
29 Advanced directing: participants
What makes us feel normalThe mind-body connectionDoing what comes naturallySelf-image and self-consciousness“Doesn’t the camera change people?”Habits of beingKeys to directing peopleWhen making an observational filmWhen making a “transparent” filmWhen making a reflexive filmSocial and formal issuesAdvantages of the small crewHaving or losing authorityUsing social times and breaksSharing in all thingsHands-on learning
30 Advanced directing: camera
Camera issues and point of viewCamera as passportCompromises for the cameraPoint of view and motivating the camera’s movementsHandheld or tripod mounted camera?Why you shoot multiple angles on the same actionAbstraction and symbolismSerendipitySubjectivity versus objectivitySpecial meaning through framingUsing contextPreparing sensitive coverageScene breakdown and crib notesEyeline shifts, motivation, inserts and cutawaysReaction shots and eyeline changesCover alternative versions of important issuesProduction stills and behind the scenes photosHands-on learning
31 Advanced interviewing
Preparing the camera operatorTouch-directionsMatch-shot compositionsAgreeing image sizesTwo camera set-upsLighting the interviewLighting on the upstage sideUsing daylightUsing a diffused keyLighting the backgroundManaging exteriorsPreparing the intervieweeSay what you needEstablish that you may interruptPut the interviewee at easeCamera and editing considerationsInterviewer and camera placementOn-axis interviewOff-axis interviewWhen the interviewer should be on-cameraPreparations so you can edit out the interviewer“Please incorporate the question in the answer”Voice overlapsVox populi street interviewsSolving the need for ellipsisJump cutsCutawaysParallel storytellingVarying shot sizesThe formal interviewInterviewing and directingLead by exampleOpen questions and leading questionsFocused questioningThe right order for your questionsEye contact and behavioral feedbackAim to elicit feelingsGoing where angels fear to treadTemptations when interviewingUsing power ethicallyWitnessingThe interviewer’s nightmareDummy runInterviewing in depthCrossing thresholdsSilence is your most persuasive instrumentDon’t catch them when they fallPrivileged moments and beatsBeing adversarial without giving offenseThe devil’s advocate approachStarting from generalized commentSeeking brevityTriggering unfinished businessConcluding the interviewThe releaseSizing up the interviewGoing further: ‘Inward Journey’ monologuesHands-on learning
PART 7C: ADVANCED POSTPRODUCTION
32 From transcript to assembly
What you need for transcriptsAccuracyTime code (TC)Line numberingTranscription software and hardwareTranscription services for hireUsing a databaseSelecting and assembling transcript materialsStage 1: make an action assemblyStage 2: mark up the interview transcriptsFrom paper edit to first assemblyLiteral and non-literal commentsTreating your audience as equalsGive action preference over wordsHands-on learning
33 Creating narration
Pros and cons of narrationNarrative voiceDrawbacksProblems narration can solveConversing and reading aloud are differentMethod A: creating the scripted narrationReading from a scriptWritingTiming and syntaxAccommodating sound featuresComplement, don’t duplicateTrying it out with a scratch recordingA script for the narratorVoice auditionsRecording and directing the narratorAcoustic settingReadingMethod B: creating the improvised narrationSimple interviewImprovising from a rough scriptImprovising from an assumed identityRemember to record presence trackFitting narration to pictureUsing the first word’s power on a new imageOperative wordsComposing meaningHands-on learning
34 Original music
Preparing to work with a composerSpotting for musicChoosing who’s rightWorking with the composerWhen there is a temp trackDiscussing a music cue listKeys in diegetic and nondiegetic musicCompiling music cuesUnifying through timeConflicts and composing to sync pointsHow long does it take?BudgetingLive recording sessionConductor needsLive music sessionMusic in postproductionFitting musicThe sound mix
35 Editing refinements and structural solutions
Editing rhythms: an analogy in musicHarmonyCounterpointDissonanceUsing your instincts while editingUsing trial audiencesSubtexts and making the visible significantWhen instincts aren’t sufficientDiagnosticsDiagnostic logTurning your film into playing cardsDealing with multiple endingsMore trial audiencesLengthFear of failure
36 The final sound mix
PreparationChecklistTailoringWhat to expectPrioritiesFile preparationPrinciplesEQ principlesEQ usesDialogue tracks and inconsistency problemsBe cautious with comparative levelsBeginning the processPremixingRehearse, then recordStemsArchivingSafety copiesMusic and effects (M&E) tracks
PART 8: WORK
37 Developing a career
Dirk Matthews on finding work after schoolWill I find work to pay my bills?On graduatingNetworkingCraftspersonYour demo reelVideo hostingWeb-building platformsYou, on the webSeeking job informationInformational interviewsCold-callingUsing narrative in the job searchMaking a job for yourselfThe importance of short filmsThe search for subjectsStudy the competitionPractice your pitchSizzle reelDocumentary proposalsUsing festivals
38 Starting up on your own
Starting a businessIncorporatingFor profit or nonprofit?Fiscal sponsorshipSeeking fundsCurrent informationCrowdfundingKickstarterCaveatsFunds and foundationsPublic fundsBroadcast organizationsSurvey organizationsFilm commissionsTod Lending on proposalsMarketing and distributionResourcesTelevisionVideo on-demandDo it yourself (DIY)Film festivalsEducational distributionA personal message
Index

Content preview from Directing the Documentary, 7th Edition

C H A P T E R 5

STORY ELEMENTS AND FILM GRAMMAR

Perception and Making Stories

This chapter will help you ground your shooting and editing in the human processes of perception. This takes a shift in focus because we use our faculties so constantly and are no more conscious of their working than of the leg muscles that move us up a flight of stairs. Here’s an exercise aimed at perceiving how we naturally sense the world around us.

AP-15: Profiling a location

Pick a place of interest and do five minutes of intense observation, either speaking all you notice into your phone’s voice memo app, or afterwards noting down everything you can remember. Notice what a wonderful story editor the memory is, because it recollects only what is significant ...

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