
307Electromagnetic Fields in Plastic Surgery
nausea, vomiting, constipation, and addictive potential (Madadi et al., 2013). NSAIDs inhibit cyclo-
oxygenases, including COX-1 and COX-2, thus inhibiting the formation of PGEs, prostacyclins,
and thromboxanes from arachidonic acid. However, NSAIDS are rarely used postoperatively due to
increased risk of hemorrhage (Swanton, Shorten, 2003) and decreased utility for severe pain. Local
anesthetics, such as lidocaine and bupivacaine, block the sodium ion channels on the neuronal cell
membrane, stabilizing the membrane and decreasing the rate of depolarization and repolarization to
achieve analgesia (Ohsaka ...