variety of ways, and we group these into three categories: measures that compare media
outlets with other actors, measures based on the intensity of media coverage, and mea-
sures of tone. In the second part of the chapter, we discuss the main factors found to be
correlated with media bias, dividing these into demand-side and supply-side factors. We
also discuss the role of competition across media outlets. In the third part of the chapter,
we discuss some of the attempts to measure the persuasive impact of media bias on cit-
izens’ attitudes and behavior.
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15.2. ESTIMATING BIAS
A substantial and growing empirical literature seeks to identify replicable and intuitive
measures of the partisan or ideological position of media outlets. Underlying most ...