18.1. INTRODUCTION
Investors in financial markets vigorously hunt for information about publicly traded com-
panies, but even the most well-informed can sharply disagree about firm values. In 2012
and 2013, hedge fund managers fiercely debated the merits of Herbalife Ltd’s network
marketing business model. After establishing a $1 billion short position in Herbalife,
the manager of Pershing Square Capital, Bill Ackman, publicly proclaimed: “This is
the highest conviction I’ve ever had about any investment I’ve ever made.”
1
At the same
time, the manager of Third Point, Dan Loeb, purchased a $200 million stake in Herbalife
and dismissed Ackman’s view as “preposterous,” arguing instead that the firm’s business is
“performing well” and the shares are “available ...