book

Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook

by Alexis Mendez, T. F. Morse

December 2006

Intermediate to advanced

840 pages

28h 20m

English

Academic Press

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List of Contributors (2/3)
List of Contributors (3/3)
Preface (1/2)
Preface (2/2)
Chapter 1: Specialty Optical Fiber Market Overview
1.1 Market Overview1.1.1 Production Versus Consumption
1.1.2 Rapidly Growing Need to Use Fiber Optic Sensors
1.1.3 Weapon System Development
1.1.4 100–1000 X Improvements in Performance
1.1.5 High Cost of Functionality
1.1.6 Multiple Features in the Same Specialty Fibers1.2 Specialty Optical Fibers: A Few Selected Examples1.2.1 Fluoride Fiber
1.2.2 Tellurite Fiber
1.2.3 Bismuth-Doped Fiber
1.2.4 Polarizing Fiber
1.2.5 Photonic Crystal Fiber—Holey Fibers
1.2.6 Dispersion-Compensating Fiber
1.2.7 High-Index Fiber
1.2.8 Polarization-Maintaining Fiber
1.2.9 Photosensitive Fiber
1.2.10 Erbium-Doped Fiber
1.3 Conclusions
Chapter 2: Light-Guiding Fundamentals and Fiber Design
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Physical Structure of a Telecommunications Optical Fiber
2.3 Linear Lightwave Propagation in an Optical Fiber2.3.1 Electromagnetic Preliminaries
2.3.2 Intuition from the Slab Waveguide
2.3.3 Optical Fiber: A Cylindrical Waveguide
2.3.4 The Linearly Polarized Mode Set LPlm
2.3.5 Finite Element Analysis for Waveguide Calculations
2.4 Working Definitions of Cutoff Wavelength
2.4.1 Introduction2.4.2 Theoretical Cutoff Wavelength2.4.3 Effective Cutoff Wavelengths
2.5 Impact of Profile Design on Macrobending Losses
2.5.1 The Depressed Cladding Fiber Design
2.5.2 Phenomenology of Macrobending Loss
2.6 Fiber Attenuation Loss
2.7 Origins of Chromatic Dispersion
2.7.1 Introduction2.7.2 Material Dispersion
2.7.3 Waveguide Dispersion
2.8 Polarization Mode Dispersion
2.8.1 Overview
2.8.2 Background
2.8.3 Modeling and Simulation
2.8.4 Control of PMD in Fiber Manufacturing
2.8.5 Measurement of PMD
2.8.6 Fiber-to-Cable-to-Field PMD Mapping
2.9 Microbending Loss
2.9.1 Microbending
2.10 Fiber Nonlinearities
2.10.1 Overview
2.10.2 Background
References
Chapter 3: Overview of Materials and Fabrication Technologies
3.1 Double-Crucible Technique
3.2 Vapor-Deposition Techniques
3.3 Outside Vapor Deposition
3.4 Vertical Axial Deposition
3.5 Direct Nanoparticle Deposition
3.6 Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition
3.6.1 Chemical Equilibria: Dopant Incorporation
3.6.2 Purification from Hydroxyl Contamination
3.6.3 Thermophoresis
3.7 Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition
3.8 Sol-Gel Processes
3.8.1 Alkoxide Sol-Gel Processing
3.8.2 Colloidal Sol-Gel Processing
3.9 Sol-Gel Microstructure Fiber Fabrication
3.10 Fiber Drawing
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 4: Optical Fiber Coatings
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Early History of Coatings for Optical Fiber
4.3 Evolution of Optical Fibers and Protective Coatings
4.3.1 Coating Contributions to Microbending Minimization
4.3.2 Glass Fiber Fracture Mechanics and Coating Contributions to Fiber Strength Retention
4.3.3 Durability of Fiber Optic Coatings
4.4 Cabling of Optical Fibers
4.5 Specialty Coatings
4.6 Basics of Optical Fiber Chemistry4.6.1 Oligomers
4.6.2 Monomers
4.6.3 Photoinitiators4.6.4 Adhesion Promoters
4.6.5 Other Additives
4.7 Application of Coatings on the Draw Tower
4.7.1 Coating Cure Speed Measurement Techniques
4.7.2 Cured Properties of Coatings on Fiber
4.7.3 Test Methods for UV-Curable Liquids and UV-Cured Films
4.7.4 Coating Adhesion
4.8 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 5: Single-Mode Fibers for Communications
5.1 Introduction
5.2 System Impairments Influencing Fiber Design
5.2.1 Limitations from Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio
5.2.2 Limitations from Intersymbol Interference
5.2.3 Limitations from Nonlinearity
5.2.4 Limitations from Amplifier Technology
5.2.5 Can Fiber Design Be Used to Optimize a Transmission System?
5.3 Overview of ITU Standards Fiber Categories
5.4 Optical Fibers for Reduced Attenuation
5.4.1 Pure Silica Core Fiber
5.4.2 Zero Water Peak Fiber
5.5 Optical Fiber Design Principles for Wideband and High Bit Rate Transmission
5.5.1 Precise Dispersion Compensation
5.5.2 Dispersion Compensation Fiber Technology
5.5.3 Full-Band Dispersion Compensation
5.5.4 Requirement for Low Residual Dispersion
5.5.5 Factors Affecting Nonlinearity
5.5.6 Impairments Affecting Raman Amplification
5.5.7 Systems Implications of Tx Fiber PMD
5.5.8 Summary of Design Principles
5.6 Design of Nonzero Dispersion Fibers
5.6.1 Fiber Transmission Parameter Tradeoffs
5.6.2 Realizability, Manufacturability, and Scalability
5.6.3 Low-Dispersion NZDFs
5.6.4 Medium-Dispersion NZDFs
5.7 A New Paradigm in Transmission Line Design
References (1/2)
References (2/2)
Chapter 6: Specialty Single-Mode Fibers
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Macrohole Fiber
6.2.1 Microfluidic Devices
6.3 Fibers with Internal Electrodes
6.3.1 Electrodes
6.3.2 Applications
6.4 Multicore Fibers and Components
6.4.1 Coupled Cores
6.4.2 Uncoupled Cores
6.4.3 Manufacturing Multicore Fibers
6.5 Fibers for High-Temperature–Resistant Gratings
6.6 Summary
References
Chapter 7: Rare Earth-Doped Fibers
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Motivation
7.3 Host Glasses for Rare Earth Ions
7.4 Fabrication of Rare Earth-Doped Fibers
7.4.1 Overview of Optical Fiber Fabrication
7.4.2 Incorporation of Rare Earth Elements (1/2)
7.4.2 Incorporation of Rare Earth Elements (2/2)
7.4.3 Summary of Rare Earth-Doped Fabrication Techniques
7.5 Erbium-Doped Fiber
7.5.1 Principles of Operation
7.5.2 Fiber Design Issues
7.5.3 Fiber Composition Issues
7.5.4 Short Wavelength Amplifiers
7.6 The Co-Doped Er/Yb System
7.7 Double-Clad Fiber
7.7.1 Limitations of Fiber Lasers
7.7.2 Methods to Improve Performance (1/2)
7.7.2 Methods to Improve Performance (2/2)
7.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 8: Polarization Maintaining Fibers
8.1 What is a Polarization Maintaining Fiber?
8.2 Why Use PM Fibers?—Applications
8.2.1 Interferometry
8.2.2 The Fiber Optic Gyroscope
8.2.3 Coherent Communications
8.2.4 Integrated Optics
8.2.5 Laser Doppler Anemometry and Velocimetry
8.2.6 EDFA Pump Combiners, Reflection-Suppression Schemes, Current Sensing, and Optical Coherence Tomography
8.3 How Do PM Fibers Work?
8.4 PM Fiber Types: Stress and Form Birefringent
8.4.1 Stress-Birefringent Fibers: Bowtie, PANDA, and Elliptical Jacket
8.4.2 Elliptical Core, Form-Birefringent Fiber
8.4.3 Microstructure (‘‘Holey’’) Fibers
8.4.4 Polarizing Fiber
8.5 PM Fiber Fabrication Methods
8.5.1 Bowtie Fibers
8.5.2 PANDA Fiber
8.5.3 Elliptical Jacket Fiber
8.5.4 Elliptical Core, Form-Birefringent Fiber
8.5.5 Microstructure (‘‘Holey’’) Fibers
8.6 Key Performance Parameters
8.6.1 Attenuation (alpha)
8.6.2 Numerical Aperture (NA)
8.6.3 Is There a Connection Between Polarization Maintenance and Attenuation?
8.6.4 Cutoff Wavelength (lamdac)
8.6.5 Mode-Field Diameter (MFD)
8.6.6 Beat Length (Lp)
8.6.7 Extinction Ratio (ER)
8.6.8 H-Parameter
8.6.9 Effect of Test Conditions and Environment on Polarization Maintaining Performance
8.7 Mechanical and Lifetime Properties
8.7.1 Strength Paradox I: Fragile Preforms Make Exceptionally Strong Fibers
8.7.2 Strength Paradox II: Thin Fibers Can Be Stronger Than Thicker Ones
References
Chapter 9: Photosensitive Fibers
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Design and Fabrication
9.3 Standard Numerical Aperture Fibers
9.3.1 Standard Single-Mode Fibers
9.3.2 Boron-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers
9.3.3 Antimony-Doped Fibers
9.3.4 Tin-Doped Fibers
9.4 High Numerical Aperture Fibers
9.4.1 Heavily Ge-Doped Silica Optical Fibers
9.4.2 Tin-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers
9.4.3 Indium-Doped Germano-Silicate Fibers
9.5 Cladding Mode Suppression
9.6 Rare Earth-Doped Photosensitive Fibers
9.6.1 Germano-Alumino-Silicate Glass Host Core
9.6.2 Confined Core
9.6.3 Photosensitive-Clad
9.6.4 Confined Core and Photosensitive Clad
9.6.5 Antimony-Doped Alumino-Silicate
9.7 Polarization Maintaining
9.8 Other Photosensitive Fiber Types
9.8.1 Polymer Optical Fibers
9.8.2 Fluoride Glass
9.8.3 Heavily P-Doped Silica Fibers
9.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 10: Hollow-Core Fibers
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Wave-Guiding by Total Internal Reflection
10.1.2 Wave-Guiding by Reflection Off a Conducting Boundary
10.1.3 Wave-Guiding by Photonic Band-Gaps
10.2 Light Transmission in Hollow-Core Fiber
10.2.1 Hollow Metal Waveguides
10.2.2 Wave-Guiding in Bragg and OmniGuide Fibers
10.2.3 Loss Mechanisms in OmniGuide Fibers (1/3)
10.2.3 Loss Mechanisms in OmniGuide Fibers (2/3)
10.2.3 Loss Mechanisms in OmniGuide Fibers (3/3)
10.2.4 Wave-Guiding in 2D Photonic-Crystal Fiber (1/2)
10.2.4 Wave-Guiding in 2D Photonic-Crystal Fiber (2/2)
10.3 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers
10.3.1 Hollow-Core Fibers for Medical Applications
10.3.2 Potential Telecom Applications
10.3.3 Hollow-Core Fibers as Gas Cells
10.3.4 Applications of Hollow-Core Fibers for Remote Sensing
10.3.5 Industrial Applications
10.4 Hollow-Core Fiber Manufacturing
10.4.1 OmniGuide Fiber Manufacturing
10.4.2 Techniques Used in the Manufacture of Other Hollow-Core Fibers
10.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Silica Nanofibers and Subwavelength-Diameter Fibers
11.1 Nanofiber at a Glance11.2 Introduction
11.3 Modeling of Single-Mode Wave-Guiding Properties of Silica Nanofibers
11.3.1 Basic Model
11.3.2 Power Distribution: Fraction of Power Inside the Core and Effective Diameter
11.3.3 Group Velocity and Waveguide Dispersion
11.4 Fabrication and Microscopic Characterization of Silica Nanofibers
11.4.1 Two-Step Taper Drawing of Silica Nanofibers
11.4.2 Electron Microscope Study of Silica Nanofibers
11.5 Properties of Silica Nanofibers
11.5.1 Micromanipulation and Mechanical Properties
11.5.2 Wave-Guiding and Optical Loss
11.6 Applications and Potential Uses of Silica Nanofibers
11.6.1 Microscale and Nanoscale Photonic Components
11.6.2 Nanofiber Optical Sensors
11.6.3 Additional Applications
References
Chapter 12: Chiral Fibers
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Three Types of Chiral Gratings
12.3 Chiral Short-Period Grating: In-Fiber Analog of CLC
12.3.1 Fabrication Challenges12.3.2 Analogy to 1D Chiral Planar Structure
12.3.3 Comparison of 1D Chiral to 1D Isotropic Layered Structures
12.3.4 Microwave Experiments
12.3.5 Optical Measurements
12.4 Chiral Intermediate-Period Grating
12.4.1 Symmetry of CIPG Structures12.4.2 Microwave Experiments
12.4.3 Optical Measurements
12.4.4 Synchronization of Optical Polarization Conversion and Scattering
12.5 Chiral Long-Period Grating
12.5.1 Optical Measurements
12.6 Conclusion
AcknowledgmentsReferences
Chapter 13: Mid-IR and Infrared Fibers
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Halide and Heavy Metal Oxide Glass Fiber Optics
13.2.1 Fluoride Glass Fibers
13.2.2 Germanate Glass Fibers
13.2.3 Chalcogenide Glass Fibers
13.3 Crystalline Fibers
13.4 Polycrystalline (PC) Fibers
13.5 Single-Crystal (SC) Fibers
13.6 Hollow-Core Waveguides
13.6.1 Hollow Metal and Plastic Waveguides
13.6.2 Hollow Glass Waveguides
13.7 Summary
References
Chapter 14: Hermetic Optical Fibers: Carbon-Coated Fibers
14.1 Introduction
14.2 History
14.3 Deposition of Carbon Coatings on Fibers
14.4 Fatigue Properties of Carbon-Coated Fibers
14.5 Hydrogen Losses in Optical Fibers
14.5.1 Hydrogen-Induced Losses in Nonhermetic Fibers
14.5.2 Hydrogen Losses in Carbon-Coated Hermetic Fibers
14.5.3 Testing of Hermetic Fibers in Hydrogen
14.5.4 Diffusion of Hydrogen in Hermetic Fibers
14.5.5 Effects of Glass Composition on Hermetic Fiber Behavior
14.6 Use and Handling of Carbon-Coated Hermetic Fibers
14.6.1 Fiber Strength14.6.2 Fiber Handling
14.6.3 Fiber Stripping, Cleaving, and Connectorization
14.6.4 Fusion Splicing
14.6.5 Fiber Color
14.7 Specifying Carbon-Coated Fibers
14.8 Applications for Carbon-Coated Hermetic Fibers
14.8.1 Fibers in Underwater Cables
14.8.2 Amplifier Fibers
14.8.3 Avionics14.8.4 Geophysical Sensors
14.9 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Metal-Coated Fibers
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Freezing Technique (1/2)
15.2 Freezing Technique (2/2)
15.3 Strength and Reliability
15.4 Degradation at High Temperature
15.5 Optical Properties of Metal-Coated Fibers
15.6 Summary
References
Chapter 16: Elliptical Core and D-Shape Fibers
16.1 Overview16.1.1 Elliptical Core Optical Fiber
16.1.2 D-Shape Elliptical Core Fiber and Variations with Assessable Regions
16.2 Manufacturing of Elliptical Core and D-Shape Fibers
16.3 Elliptical Core Fibers: Characteristics and Properties
16.3.1 Birefringence
16.3.2 Polarization Holding
16.3.3 Ellipticity and Higher Order Modes
16.4 D-Shape Fibers: Characteristics and Properties
16.4.1 Accessing the Optical Fields: Fiber Etching
16.4.2 Wet Etching of Silicon Dioxide–Based Cladding and Germanosilicate Core
16.4.3 Standard Etching (Etch to Reach Evanescent Field)
16.4.4 Exposing the Core
16.4.5 Partial and Full Core Removal
16.5 D-Shape Fiber Components
16.5.1 Couplers
16.5.2 Loop Mirrors
16.5.3 Polarizers
16.5.4 Butt Coupling to Active Devices
16.5.5 Coupling to Integrated Optics
16.6 Splicing
16.6.1 D-Shape to D-Shape Fiber Splicing16.6.2 D-Shape to Circular Clad Fiber Splicing
16.7 In-Fiber Devices
16.7.1 Electro-Optic Overlay Intensity Modulators
16.7.2 Replaced Cladding Phase Modulators
16.7.3 Partial and Full Core-Replaced Devices
16.7.4 Fiber Bragg Grating Devices
16.7.5 Variable Attenuators
16.7.6 Optical Absorption Monitoring
16.7.7 Intrinsic Fiber Sensors
16.7.8 D-Shape Fiber Opto-Electronic Devices
16.8 Rare Earth-Doped Elliptical Core Fiber
References (1/2)
References (2/2)
Chapter 17: Multimode, Large-Core, and Plastic Clad (PCS) Fibers
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Large-Core Silica/Silica (All-Silica) Fiber
17.3 High NA and Low NA Silica/Silica Fibers
17.4 Plastic and Hard Polymer Clad Silica Fibers
17.4.1 Plastic Clad Silica Fibers17.4.2 Hard Polymer Clad Silica
17.5 Silica Fibers with Nano-Porous Cladding/Coating
17.6 Unlimited Application Potential
References
Chapter 18: Tapered Fibers and Specialty Fiber Microcomponents
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Tapers
18.2.1 Design of a Fiber Taper
18.3 Lenses
18.4 Diffusers
18.5 Side-Fire and Angled Ends
18.6 Optical Detection Windows for Microfluidic Flow Cells
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 19: Liquid-Core Optical Fibers
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Propagation of Light in Liquid-Core Fibers: Modal Features, Dispersion, and Polarization Effects
19.3 Fabrication and Characterization Methods
19.4 Applications
19.4.1 Waveguides for Special Spectral Regions and Optical Chemical Analysis
19.4.2 Fiber Sensors
19.4.3 Nonlinear Optical Effects
19.4.4 Medical Applications
19.4.5 Special Waveguide Structures and Devices with Liquid Cores
19.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: Polymer Optical Fibers
20.1 Introduction20.2 POF Basics
20.2.1 Materials for POF
20.2.2 Light Propagation Effects in POF
20.2.3 Bandwidth of POF
20.3 Types of POF
20.4 POF Standards
20.5 POF Transmission Systems
20.5.1 SI-PMMA POF
20.5.2 PMMA-GI POF
20.5.3 PF-GI POF
20.6 Applications of POF
20.6.1 POF in Automobile Networks
20.6.2 POF Sensors
20.6.3 POF in Home Networks
20.7 POF Fabrication Methods
20.7.1 SI POF: Preform and Extrusion Method
20.7.2 Production of Graded-Index Profiles
20.7.3 Interfacial Gel Polymerization Technique
20.7.4 GI POF Extrusion
References
Chapter 21: Sapphire Optical Fibers
21.1 The Growth of Sapphire Fiber
21.2 Optical and Mechanical Characteristics of Single-Crystal Sapphire Fiber
21.3 Cladding and Coating of Sapphire Fibers
21.4 Applications of Sapphire Fibers
21.4.1 Optical Fiber Sensors
21.4.2 Medical Applications
21.5 Appendix: Material Properties of Al2O3
References
Chapter 22: Optical Fibers for Industrial Laser Applications
22.1 Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers: An Introduction
22.2 Cladding Pumped Fibers
22.3 Large-Mode-Area Ytterbium-Doped Fibers: The Power Revolution (1/2)
22.3 Large-Mode-Area Ytterbium-Doped Fibers: The Power Revolution (2/2)
22.4 Polarization-Maintaining LMA DCF (1/2)
22.4 Polarization-Maintaining LMA DCF (2/2)
22.5 Fiber Lasers: State of the Art
22.6 Large-Mode-Area Eye-Safe Fibers (1/2)
22.6 Large-Mode-Area Eye-Safe Fibers (2/2)
22.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 23: Optical Fibers for Biomedical Applications
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Medical Laser Arms
23.3 Transendoscopic Surgical Application
23.3.1 Clinical Tests
23.4 Absorption Spectroscopy
23.4.1 Introduction
23.4.2 Medical Applications of Absorption Spectroscopy
23.5 Evanescent Wave Spectroscopy
23.5.1 Introduction
23.5.2 Experimental Setups
23.5.3 Chemical Sensing
23.5.4 Biochemical Sensing
23.6 Fiber Optic Thermal Sensing
23.6.1 Fiber Optic Thermal Sensor
23.6.2 Optical Fiber Radiometry
23.7 Thermal Imaging
23.7.1 Infrared Imaging and Tomography in Minimally Invasive Procedures
References (1/2)
References (2/2)
Chapter 24: Mechanical Strength and Reliability of Glass Fibers
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Review of Glass Properties
24.2.1 Noncrystallinity, the Glass Transition (Tg), and Relaxation Processes
24.2.2 Brittleness, Hardness, and Cracking
24.2.3 Composition Effects
24.3 Mechanical Properties
24.3.1 Strength
24.3.2 Fatigue
24.3.3 Aging
24.3.4 Nonsilicate Glasses
24.3.5 Photonic Crystal or ‘‘Holey Fibers’’
24.4 Coatings
24.4.1 General Comments and Polymer Coatings24.4.2 Metal Coatings24.4.3 Inorganic Coatings
24.5 Handling and Post-Draw Processing
24.5.1 Fiber Stripping
24.5.2 Fiber Cleaving
24.5.3 Splicing
24.5.4 Polishing
24.5.5 Soldering/Pigtails
24.5.6 Recovery of Handling Damage: Etching
24.6 Fractography
24.7 Proof-Testing and Reliability
24.7.1 Minimum Strength Design
24.7.2 Failure Probability Design
Acknowledgments
References
Index (1/4)
Index (2/4)
Index (3/4)
Index (4/4)

Content preview from Specialty Optical Fibers Handbook

Chapter 8

Polarization Maintaining

Fibers

Chris Emslie

Fibercore Ltd., Hampshire, England

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a practical, technical introduction to

the field of polarization maintaining (PM) fiber that will equip the reader with

the basic knowledge and understanding necessary to use or specify this category

of specialty fiber.

The chapter begins by explaining how PM fibers work and provides brief

examples of their various applications in sensing, medicine, and telecommunica-

tions, before describing the main fiber designs and the fabrication techniques

used to produce them. The relatively new technology of ‘‘holey’’ or ‘‘microstruc- ...

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Odyssey of Light in Nonlinear Optical Fibers

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by Alexis Mendez, T. F. Morse

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