
80 ◾ Cyber-Physical Systems
7.5 Medical CPS Interaction Software
For the last 40 years, devices such as pacemakers and implantable cardioverter defibrillators that
are used to manage the rhythm of the heart have vastly increased in complexity. ese cardiac
devices can now have around 80,000 to 100,000 lines of computer code to operate. Between the
years of 1990 and 2000, there were safety recalls performed on more than 600,000 pacemaker and
implantable cardioverter defibrillator devices. Of the 600,000, around 41% were recalled because
of issues with the firmware of the devices. is is a problem that has continued to increase over
the years. ...