89Engineering Cell Surface Interface in Tissue Engineering and Biosensors
as small as tens of nanometer (Yasin etal. 2001). While some of these techniques,
such as nanoimprint lithography technique, indirectly transfers patterns from a nano-
structured mold to the substrate (Hoff etal. 2004), others such as dip-pen lithography
using functionalized atomic force microscope tips or nanopipetting using a focused
ion beam microscope directly create nanoscale patterns on the surface (Lee etal.
2002; Bruckbauer etal. 2004). For proper cell adhesion, a spacing of 10nm to sev-
eral hundred nanometers between adjacent nano/microfeatures has been suggested
(Massia and Hubbell 1991). The scale of topography also affects the cell alignment.
Generally ...